Human population size has grown enormously over the

last hundred years. This means increase in demand for

food, water, home, electricity, roads, automobiles and

numerous other commodities. These demands are exerting

tremendous pressure on our natural resources, and are

also contributing to pollution of air, water and soil. The

need of the hour is to check the degradation and depletion

of our precious natural resources and pollution without

halting the process of development.

Pollution is any undesirable change in physical,

chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water or

soil. Agents that bring about such an undesirable change

are called as pollutants. In order to control environmental

pollution, the Government of India has passed the

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to protect

and improve the quality of our environment (air, water

and soil).

16.1 AIR POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

We are dependent on air for our respiratory needs. Air

pollutants cause injury to all living organisms. They

reduce growth and yield of crops and cause premature

death of plants. Air pollutants also deleteriously affect the

respiratory system of humans and of animals. Harmful

CHAPTER 16

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

16.1 Air Pollution and Its

Control

16.2 Water Pollution and Its

Control

16.3 Solid Wastes

16.4 Agro-chemicals and

their Effects

16.5 Radioactive Wastes

16.6 Greenhouse Effect and

Global Warming

16.7 Ozone Depletion in the

Stratosphere

16.8 Degradation by Improper

Resource Utilisation and

Maintenance

16.9 Deforestation

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effects depend on the concentration of pollutants, duration of exposure

and the organism.

Smokestacks of thermal power plants, smelters and other industries

release particulate and gaseous air pollutants together with harmless

gases, such as nitrogen, oxygen, etc. These pollutants must be separated/

filtered out before releasing the harmless gases into the atmosphere.

Figure 16.1 Electrostatic precipitator

There are several ways of removing particulate matter; the most widely

used of which is the electrostatic precipitator (Figure 16.1), which can

remove over 99 per cent particulate matter present in the exhaust from a

thermal power plant. It has electrode wires that are maintained at several

thousand volts, which produce a corona that releases electrons. These

electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge. The

collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles.

The velocity of air between the plates must be low enough to allow the

dust to fall. A scrubber (Figure 16.1) can remove gases like sulphur

dioxide. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or

lime. Recently we have realised the dangers of particulate matter that are

very very small and are not removed by these precipitators. According to

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulate size 2.5 micrometers

or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing the greatest harm

to human health. These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the

lungs and can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation,

inflammations and damage to the lungs and premature deaths.

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Automobiles are a major cause for atmospheric pollution atleast in

the metro cities. As the number of vehicles increase on the streets, this

problem is now shifting to the other cities too. Proper maintenance of

automobiles along with use of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce the

pollutants they emit. Catalytic converters, having expensive metals namely

platinum-palladium and rhodium as the catalysts, are fitted into

automobiles for reducing emission of poisonous gases. As the exhaust

passes through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons are

converted into carbon dioxide and water, and carbon monoxide and nitric

oxide are changed to carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor

vehicles equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded petrol

because lead in the petrol inactivates the catalyst.

In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came

into force in 1981, but was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air

pollutant. Noise is undesired high level of sound. We have got used to

associating loud sounds with pleasure and entertainment not realising

that noise causes psychological and physiological disorders in humans.

The bigger the city, the bigger the function, the greater the noise!! A

brief exposure to extremely high sound level, 150 dB or more generated

by take off of a jet plane or rocket, may damage ear drums thus

permanently impairing hearing ability. Even chronic exposure to a

relatively lower noise level of cities may permanently damage hearing

abilities of humans. Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart

beat, altered breathing pattern, thus considerably stressing humans.

Considering the many dangerous effects of noise pollution can you

identify the unnecessary sources of noise pollution around you which

can be reduced immediately without any financial loss to anybody?

Reduction of noise in our industries can be affected by use of sound-

absorbent materials or by muffling noise. Stringent following of laws laid

down in relation to noise like delimitation of horn-free zones around

hospitals and schools, permissible sound-levels of crackers and of loud-

speakers, timings after which loudspeakers cannot be played, etc., need

to be enforced to protect ourselves from noise pollution.

16.1.1 Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution: A Case

Study of Delhi

With its very large population of vehicular traffic, Delhi leads the coun-

try in its levels of air-pollution – it has more cars than the states of

Gujarat and West Bengal put together. In the 1990s, Delhi ranked

fourth among the 41 most polluted cities of the world. Air pollution

problems in Delhi became so serious that a public interest litigation

(PIL) was filed in the Supreme Court of India. After being censured very

strongly by the Supreme Court, under its directives, the government

was asked to take, within a specified time period, appropriate meas-

ures, including switching over the entire fleet of public transport, i.e.,

buses, from diesel to compressed natural gas (CNG). All the buses of

Delhi were converted to run on CNG by the end of 2002. You may ask

the question as to why CNG is better than diesel. The answer is that

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CNG burns most efficiently, unlike petrol or diesel, in the automobiles

and very little of it is left unburnt. Moreover, CNG is cheaper than petrol

or diesel, cannot be siphoned off by thieves and adulterated like petrol

or diesel. The main problem with switching over to CNG is the difficulty

of laying down pipelines to deliver CNG through distribution points/

pumps and ensuring uninterrupted supply. Simultaneously parallel

steps taken in Delhi for reducing vehicular pollution include phasing

out of old vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur petrol

and diesel, use of catalytic converters in vehicles, application of stringent

pollution-level norms for vehicles, etc.

The Government of India through a new auto fuel policy has laid

out a roadmap to cut down vehicular pollution in Indian cities. More

stringent norms for fuels means steadily reducing the sulphur and

aromatic content in petrol and diesel fuels. Euro III norms, for example,

stipulate that sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per-million (ppm) in

diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic hydrocarbons are to be contained

at 42 per cent of the concerned fuel. The goal, according to the roadmap,

is to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and bring down the

level to 35 per cent. Corresponding to the fuel, vehicle engines will also

need to be upgraded.

Mass Emission Standards (Bharat Stage II which is equivalent to

Euro-II norms) are no more applicable in any of the cities of India.

Details of the latest Mass Emission Standards in India are provided

below (Table 16.1)

Type of Vehicles Norms Cities of Implementation

4 Wheelers Bharat Stage IV Throughout the country

since April 2017

3 Wheelers Bharat Stage IV Throughout the country

since 1st April 2017

2 Wheelers Bharat Stage IV Throughout the country

since April 2017

Table 16.1: Table Showing the Mass Emission Standards in India

Thanks to the efforts made, the air quality of Delhi has significantly

improved. According to an estimate, a substantial fall in CO

and SO

level has been found in Delhi between 1997 and 2005.

16.2 WATER POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL

Human beings have been abusing the water-bodies around the world by

disposing into them all kinds of waste. We tend to believe that water can

wash away everything not taking cognizance of the fact that the water

bodies are our lifeline as well as that of all other living organisms. Can

you list what all we tend to try and wash away through our rivers and

drains? Due to such activities of human kind, the ponds, lakes, stream,

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rivers, estuaries and oceans are becoming polluted in several parts of the

world. Realising the importance of maintaining the cleanliness of the water

bodies, the Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and

Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.

16.2.1 Domestic Sewage and Industrial Effluents

As we work with water in our homes in the cities and towns, we wash

everything into drains. Have you

ever wondered where the sewage

that comes out of our houses go?

What happens in villages? Is the

sewage treated before being

transported to the nearest river

and mixed with it? A mere 0.1

per cent impurities make

domestic sewage unfit for human

use (Figure 16.2). You have read

about sewage treatment

plants in Chapter 10. Solids are

relatively easy to remove, what

is most difficult to remove are

Figure 16.2 Composition of waste water

Figure 16.3 Effect of sewage discharge on some important characteristics of a river

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dissolved salts such as nitrates, phosphates, and other nutrients, and

toxic metal ions and organic compounds. Domestic sewage primarily

contains biodegradable organic matter, which readily decomposes –

thanks to bacteria and other micro-organisms, which can multiply using

these organic substances as substrates and hence utilise some of the

components of sewage. It is possible to estimate the amount of

biodegradable organic matter in sewage water by measuring Biochemical

Oxygen Demand (BOD). Can you explain how? In the chapter on micro-

organisms you have read about the relation between BOD, micro-

organisms and the amount of biodegradable matter.

Figure 16.3 shows some of the changes that one may notice following

discharge of sewage into a river. Micro-organisms involved in

biodegradation of organic matter in the receiving water body consume a

lot of oxygen, and as a result there is a sharp decline in dissolved oxygen

downstream from the point of sewage discharge. This causes mortality of

fish and other aquatic creatures.

Presence of large amounts of nutrients in waters also causes excessive

growth of planktonic (free-floating) algae, called an algal bloom

(Figure 16.4) which imparts a distinct colour to the water bodies. Algal

blooms cause deterioration of the water quality and fish mortality. Some

bloom-forming algae are extremely toxic to human beings and animals.

You may have seen the beautiful mauve-colored flowers found on

very appealingly-shaped floating plants in water bodies. These plants

which were introduced into India for their lovely flowers have caused havoc

by their excessive growth by causing blocks in our waterways. They grow

faster than our ability to remove them. These are plants of water hyacinth

(Eichhornia crassipes), the world’s most problematic aquatic weed, also

Figure 16.4 Pictorial view of an algal bloom

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called ‘Terror of Bengal’. They grow abundantly in

eutrophic water bodies, and lead to an imbalance in the

ecosystem dynamics of the water body.

Sewage from our homes as well as from hospitals are

likely to contain many undesirable pathogenic micro-

organisms, and its disposal into a water without proper

treatment may cause outbreak of serious diseases, such

as, dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc.

Unlike domestic sewage, waste water from industries

like petroleum, paper manufacturing, metal extraction and

processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., often contain

toxic substances, notably, heavy metals (defined as

elements with density > 5 g/cm

such as mercury,

cadmium, copper, lead, etc.) and a variety of organic

compounds.

A few toxic substances, often present in industrial

waste waters, can undergo biological magnification

(Biomagnification) in the aquatic food chain.

Biomagnification refers to increase in concentration of

the toxicant at successive trophic levels. This happens

because a toxic substance accumulated by an organism

cannot be metabolised or excreted, and is thus passed on

to the next higher trophic level. This phenomenon is well-

known for mercury and DDT. Figure 16.5 shows

biomagnification of DDT in an aquatic food chain. In this

manner, the concentration of DDT is increased at

successive trophic levels; say if it starts at 0.003 ppb

(ppb = parts per billion) in water, it can ultimately reach

25 ppm (ppm = parts per million) in fish-eating birds,

through biomagnification. High concentrations of DDT

disturb calcium metabolism in birds, which causes

thinning of eggshell and their premature breaking,

eventually causing decline in bird populations.

Eutrophication is the natural aging of a lake by

nutrient enrichment of its water. In a young lake the water is cold and

clear, supporting little life. With time, streams draining into the lake

introduce nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which encourage

the growth of aquatic organisms. As the lake’s fertility increases, plant

and animal life burgeons, and organic remains begin to be deposited on

the lake bottom. Over the centuries, as silt and organic debris pile up, the

lake grows shallower and warmer, with warm-water organisms

supplanting those that thrive in a cold environment. Marsh plants take

root in the shallows and begin to fill in the original lake basin. Eventually,

the lake gives way to large masses of floating plants (bog), finally converting

into land. Depending on climate, size of the lake and other factors, the

Figure 16.5 Biomagnification of

DDT in an aquatic

food chain

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natural aging of a lake may span thousands of years. However, pollutants

from man’s activities like effluents from the industries and homes can

radically accelerate the aging process. This phenomenon has been called

Cultural or Accelerated Eutrophication. During the past century, lakes

in many parts of the earth have been severely eutrophied by sewage and

agricultural and industrial wastes. The prime contaminants are nitrates

and phosphates, which act as plant nutrients. They overstimulate the

growth of algae, causing unsightly scum and unpleasant odours, and

robbing the water of dissolved oxygen vital to other aquatic life. At the

same time, other pollutants flowing into a lake may poison whole

populations of fish, whose decomposing remains further deplete the

water’s dissolved oxygen content. In such fashion, a lake can literally

choke to death.

Heated (thermal) wastewaters flowing out of electricity-generating units,

e.g., thermal power plants, constitute another important category of

pollutants. Thermal wastewater eliminates or reduces the number of

organisms sensitive to high temperature, and may enhance the growth of

plants and fish in extremely cold areas but, only after causing damage to

the indigenous flora and fauna.

16.2.2 A Case Study of Integrated Waste Water Treatment

Wastewater including sewage can be treated in an integrated manner, by

utilising a mix of artificial and natural processes. An example of such an

initiative is the town of Arcata, situated along the northern coast of

California. Collaborating with biologists from the Humboldt

State University, the townspeople created an integrated waste water

treatment process within a natural system. The cleaning occurs in two

stages – (a) the conventional sedimentation, filtering and chlorine

treatments are given. After this stage, lots of dangerous pollutants like

dissolved heavy metals still remain. To combat this, an innovative

approach was taken and (b) the biologists developed a series of six

connected marshes over 60 hectares of marshland. Appropriate plants,

algae, fungi and bacteria were seeded into this area, which neutralise,

absorb and assimilate the pollutants. Hence, as the water flows through

the marshes, it gets purified naturally.

The marshes also constitute a sanctuary, with a high level of

biodiversity in the form of fishes, animals and birds that now reside there.

A citizens group called Friends of the Arcata Marsh (FOAM) are responsible

for the upkeep and safeguarding of this wonderful project. .

All this time, we have assumed that removal of wastes requires water,

i.e., the creation of sewage. But what if water is not necessary to dispose

off human waste, like excreta? Can you imagine the amount of water that

one can save if one didn’t have to flush the toilet? Well, this is already a

reality. Ecological sanitation is a sustainable system for handling human

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excreta, using dry composting toilets. This is a practical, hygienic, efficient

and cost-effective solution to human waste disposal. The key point to

note here is that with this composting method, human excreta can be

recycled into a resource (as natural fertiliser), which reduces the need for

chemical fertilisers. There are working ‘EcoSan’ toilets in many areas of

Kerala and Sri Lanka.

16.3 SOLID WASTES

Solid wastes refer to everything that goes out in trash. Municipal solid

wastes are wastes from homes, offices, stores, schools, hospitals, etc.,

that are collected and disposed by the municipality. The municipal solid

wastes generally comprise paper, food wastes, plastics, glass, metals,

rubber, leather, textile, etc. Burning reduces the volume of the wastes,

although it is generally not burnt to completion and open dumps often

serve as the breeding ground for rats and flies. Sanitary landfills were

adopted as the substitute for open-burning dumps. In a sanitary landfill,

wastes are dumped in a depression or trench after compaction, and

covered with dirt everyday. If you live in a town or city, do you know

where the nearest landfill site is? Landfills are also not really much of a

solution since the amount of garbage generation specially in the metros

has increased so much that these sites are getting filled too. Also there

is danger of seepage of chemicals, etc., from these landfills polluting the

underground water resources.

A solution to all this can only be in human beings becoming more

sensitive to these environment issues. All waste that we generate can

be categorised into three types – (a) bio-degradable, (b) recyclable and

sorted. What can be reused or recycled should be separated out; our

kabadiwallahs and rag-pickers do a great job of separation of materials

for recycling. The biodegradable materials can be put into deep pits in

the ground and be left for natural breakdown. That leaves only the non-

biodegradable to be disposed off. The need to reduce our garbage

generation should be a prime goal, instead, we are increasing the use of

non-biodegradable products. Just pick any readymade packet of any

‘good quality’ eatable, say a biscuit packet, and study the packaging –

do you see the number of protective layers used? Note that atleast one

layer is of plastic. We have started packaging even our daily use products

like milk and water in polybags!! In cities, fruits and vegetables can be

bought packed in beautiful polysterene and plastic packaging – we pay

so much and what do we do? Contribute heavily to environmental

pollution. State Governments across the country are trying to push for

reduction in use of plastics and use of eco-friendly packaging. We can do

our bit by carrying cloth or other natural fibre carry-bags when we go

shopping and by refusing polythene bags.

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Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and

other harmful chemicals, and also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such

wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. The use of incinerators

is crucial to disposal of hospital waste.

Irreparable computers and other electronic goods are known as

electronic wastes (e-wastes). E-wastes are burried in landfills or

incinerated. Over half of the e-wastes generated in the developed world

are exported to developing countries, mainly to China, India and Pakistan,

where metals like copper, iron, silicon, nickel and gold are recovered

during recycling process. Unlike developed countries, which have

specifically built facilities for recycling of e-wastes, recycling in developing

countries often involves manual participation thus exposing workers to

toxic substances present in e-wastes. Recycling is the only solution for

the treatment of e-waste, provided it is carried out in an environment-

friendly manner.

16.3.1 Case Study of Remedy for Plastic Waste

A plastic sack manufacturer in Bangalore has managed to find the ideal

solution to the ever-increasing problem of accumulating plastic waste.

Ahmed Khan, aged 57 years old, has been producing plastic sacks for

20 years. About 8 years ago, he realised that plastic waste was a real

problem. Polyblend, a fine powder of recycled modified plastic, was

developed then by his company. This mixture is mixed with the bitumen

that is used to lay roads. In collaboration with R.V.College of Engineering

and the Bangalore City Corporation, Ahmed Khan proved that blends of

Polyblend and bitumen, when used to lay roads, enhanced the bitumen’s

water repellant properties, and helped to increase road life by a factor of

three. The raw material for creating Polyblend is any plastic film waste.

So, against the price of Rs. 0.40 per kg that rag pickers had been getting

for plastic waste, Khan now offers Rs.6. Using Khan’s technique, by the

year 2002, more than 40 kms of road in Bangalore has already been

laid. At this rate, Khan will soon be running short of plastic waste in

Bangalore, to produce Polyblend. Thanks to innovations like Polyblend,

we might still avoid being smothered by plastic waste.

16.4 AGRO-CHEMICALS AND THEIR EFFECTS

In the wake of green revolution, use of inorganic fertilisers and pesticides

has increased manifold for enhancing crop production. Pesticides,

herbicides, fungicides, etc., are being increasingly used. These incidentally,

are also toxic to non-target organisms,that are important components of

the soil ecosystem. Do you think these can be biomagnified in the terrestrial

ecosystems? We know what the addition of increasing amounts of

chemical fertilisers can do to aquatic ecosystems vis-à-vis eutrophication.

The current problems in agriculture are, therefore, extremely grave.

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16.4.1 Case Study of Organic Farming

Integrated organic farming is a cyclical, zero-waste procedure, where waste

products from one process are cycled in as nutrients for other processes.

This allows the maximum utilisation of resource and increases the

efficiency of production. Ramesh Chandra Dagar, a farmer in Sonipat,

Haryana, is doing just this. He includes bee-keeping, dairy management,

water harvesting, composting and agriculture in a chain of processes,

which support each other and allow an extremely economical and

sustainable venture. There is no need to use chemical fertilisers for crops,

as cattle excreta (dung) are used as manure. Crop waste is used to create

compost, which can be used as a natural fertiliser or can be used to

generate natural gas for satisfying the energy needs of the farm.

Enthusiastic about spreading information and help on the practice of

integrated organic farming, Dagar has created the Haryana Kisan Welfare

Club, with a current membership of 5000 farmers.

16.5 RADIOACTIVE WASTES

Initially, nuclear energy was hailed as a non-polluting way for generating

electricity. Later on, it was realised that the use of nuclear energy has two

very serious inherent problems. The first is accidental leakage, as occurred

in the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl incidents and the second is safe

disposal of radioactive wastes.

Radiation, that is given off by nuclear waste is extremely damaging to

organisms, because it causes mutations at a very high rate. At high doses,

nuclear radiation is lethal but at lower doses, it creates various disorders,

the most frequent of all being cancer. Therefore, nuclear waste is an

extremely potent pollutant and has to be dealt with utmost caution.

It has been recommended that storage of nuclear waste, after

sufficient pre-treatment, should be done in suitably shielded

containers buried within the rocks, about 500 m deep below the

earth’s surface. However, this method of disposal is meeting stiff

opposition from the public. Why do you think this method of

disposal is not agreeable to many people?

16.6 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

The term ‘Greenhouse effect’ has been derived from a phenomenon that

occurs in a greenhouse. Have you ever seen a greenhouse? It looks like a

small glass house and is used for growing plants especially during winter.

In a greenhouse the glass panel lets the light in, but does not allow heat

to escape. Therefore, the greenhouse warms up, very much like inside a

car that has been parked in the sun for a few hours.

The greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is

responsible for heating of Earth’s surface and atmosphere. You would be

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surprised to know that without greenhouse effect the average temperature

at surface of Earth would have been a chilly –18

C rather than the present

average of 15

C. In order to understand the

greenhouse effect, it is necessary to know the

fate of the energy of sunlight that reaches the

outermost atmosphere (Figure16.6). Clouds

and gases reflect about one-fourth of the

incoming solar radiation, and absorb some of

it but almost half of incoming solar radiation

falls on Earth’s surface heating it, while a small

proportion is reflected back. Earth’s surface

re-emits heat in the form of infrared radiation

but part of this does not escape into space as

atmospheric gases (e.g., carbon dioxide,

methane, etc.) absorb a major fraction of it. The

molecules of these gases radiate heat energy,

and a major part of which again comes to

Earth’s surface, thus heating it up once again.

This cycle is repeated many a times. The

above-mentioned gases – carbon dioxide and methane – are commonly

known as greenhouse gases (Figure 16.7) because they are responsible

for the greenhouse effect.

Increase in the level of greenhouse gases has led to considerable heating

of Earth leading to global warming. During the past century, the

temperature of Earth has increased by 0.6

C, most of it during the last

Figure 16.7 Relative contribution of various

greenhouse gases to total global

warming

Figure 16.6 Sunlight energy at the outermost atmosphere

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Figure 16.8 Ozone hole is the area above

Antarctica, shown in purple

colour, where the ozone layer

is the thinnest. Ozone

thickness is given in Dobson

unit (see carefully the scale

shown in colour violet to red).

The ozone hole over Antarctica

develops each year between

late August and early

October. Courtesy: NASA

three decades. Scientists believe that this rise in temperature is leading

to deleterious changes in the environment and resulting in odd climatic

changes (e.g. El Nino effect) , thus leading to increased melting of polar

ice caps as well as of other places like the Himalayan snow caps. Over

many years, this will result in a rise in sea level that can submerge many

coastal areas. The total spectrum of changes that global warming can

bring about is a subject that is still under active research.

How can we control global warming? The measures include cutting

down use of fossil fuel, improving efficiency of energy usage, reducing

deforestation, planting trees and slowing down the growth of human

population. International initiatives are also being taken to reduce the

emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

16.7 OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATO-

SPHERE

You have earlier studied in the Chemistry

textbook of Class XI about ‘bad’ ozone, formed

in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) that harms

plants and animals. There is ‘good’ ozone also;

this ozone is found in the upper part of the

atmosphere called the stratosphere, and it acts

as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from

the sun. UV rays are highly injurious to living

organisms since DNA and proteins of living

organisms preferentially absorb UV rays, and its

high energy breaks the chemical bonds within

these molecules. The thickness of the ozone in a

column of air from the ground to the top of the

atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson

units (DU).

Ozone gas is continuously formed by the

action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also

degraded into molecular oxygen in the

stratosphere. There should be a balance between

production and degradation of ozone in the

stratosphere. Of late, the balance has been

disrupted due to enhancement of ozone

degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).

CFCs find wide use as refrigerants. CFCs discharged in the lower part of

atmosphere move upward and reach stratosphere. In stratosphere, UV

rays act on them releasing Cl atoms. Cl degrades ozone releasing

molecular oxygen, with these atoms acting merely as catalysts; Cl atoms

are not consumed in the reaction. Hence, whatever CFCs are added to

the stratosphere, they have permanent and continuing effects on Ozone

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levels. Although ozone depletion is occurring widely in the stratosphere,

the depletion is particularly marked over the Antarctic region. This has

resulted in formation of a large area of thinned ozone layer, commonly

called as the ozone hole (Figure 16.8).

UV radiation of wavelengths shorter than UV-B, are almost completely

absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere, given that the ozone layer is intact. But,

UV-B damages DNA and mutation may occur. It causes aging of skin,

damage to skin cells and various types of skin cancers. In human eye,

cornea absorbs UV-B radiation, and a high dose of UV-B causes

inflammation of cornea, called snow-blindness, cataract, etc. Such

exposure may permanently damage the cornea.

Recognising the deleterious affects of ozone depletion, an international

treaty, known as the Montreal Protocol, was signed at Montreal (Canada)

in 1987 (effective in 1989) to control the emission of ozone depleting

substances. Subsequently many more efforts have been made and

protocols have laid down definite roadmaps, separately for developed and

developing countries, for reducing the emission of CFCs and other ozone

depleting chemicals.

16.8 DEGRADATION BY IMPROPER RESOURCE UTILISATION

AND MAINTENANCE

The degradation of natural resources can occur, not just by the action of

pollutants but also by improper resource utilisation practices.

Soil erosion and desertification: The development of the fertile top-soil

takes centuries. But, it can be removed very easily due to human activities

like over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation and poor

irrigation practices, resulting in arid patches of land. When large barren

patches extend and meet over time, a desert is created. Internationally, it

has been recognised that desertification is a major problem nowadays,

particularly due to increased urbanisation.

Waterlogging and soil salinity: Irrigation without pr

oper drainage of

water leads to waterlogging in the soil. Besides affecting the crops,

waterlogging draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt then is deposited

as a thin crust on the land surface or starts collecting at the roots of the

plants. This increased salt content is inimical to the growth of crops and

is extremely damaging to agriculture. Waterlogging and soil salinity are

some of the problems that have come in the wake of the Green Revolution.

16.9 DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones.

According to an estimate, almost 40 per cent forests have been lost in the

tropics, compared to only 1 per cent in the temperate region. The present

scenario of deforestation is particularly grim in India. At the beginning of

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the twentieth century, forests covered about 30 per cent of the land of

India. By the end of the century, it shrunk to 21.54 per cent, whereas the

National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended 33 per cent forest

cover for the plains and 67 per cent for the hills.

How does deforestation occur? A number of human activities

contribute to it. One of the major reasons is the conversion of forest to

agricultural land so as to feed the growing human population. Trees are

axed for timber, firewood, cattle ranching and for several other purposes.

Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as Jhum cultivation in

the north-eastern states of India, has also contributed to deforestation.

In slash and burn agriculture, the farmers cut down the trees of the forest

and burn the plant remains. The ash is used as a fertiliser and the land is

then used for farming or cattle grazing. After cultivation, the area is left

for several years so as to allow its recovery. The farmers then move on to

other areas and repeat this process. In earlier days, when Jhum cultivation

was in prevalence, enough time-gap was given so that the land recovered

from the effect of cultivation. With increasing population, and repeated

cultivation, this recovery phase is done away with, resulting in

deforestation.

What are the consequences of deforestation? One of the major effects

is enhanced carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere because

trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their biomass are lost with

deforestation. Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to habitat

destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion, and may lead

to desertification in extreme cases.

Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed

but was removed at some point of time in the past. Reforestation may

occur naturally in a deforested area. However, we can speed it up by

planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity that earlier existed

in that area.

16.9.1 Case Study of People’s Participation in

Conservation of Forests

People’s participation has a long history in India. In 1731, the king of

Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked one of his ministers to arrange wood for

constructing a new palace. The minister and workers went to a forest

near a village, inhabited by Bishnois, to cut down trees. The Bishnoi

community is known for its peaceful co-existence with nature. The effort

to cut down trees by the kings was thwarted by the Bishnois. A Bishnoi

woman Amrita Devi showed exemplary courage by hugging a tree and

daring king’s men to cut her first before cutting the tree. The tree mattered

much more to her than her own life. Sadly, the king’s men did not heed to

her pleas, and cut down the tree along with Amrita Devi. Her three

daughters and hundreds of other Bishnois followed her, and thus lost

their lives saving trees. Nowhere in history do we find a commitment of

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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

SUMMARY

Major issues relating to environmental pollution and depletion of

valuable natural resources vary in dimension from local, regional to

global levels. Air pollution primarily results from burning of fossil fuel,

e.g., coal and petroleum, in industries and in automobiles. They are

harmful to humans, animals and plants, and therefore must be removed

to keep our air clean. Domestic sewage, the most common source of

pollution of water bodies, reduces dissolved oxygen but increases

biochemical oxygen demand of receiving water. Domestic sewage is rich

in nutrients, especially, nitrogen and phosphorus, which cause

eutrophication and nuisance creating algal blooms. Industrial waste

waters are often rich in toxic chemicals, especially heavy metals and

organic compounds. Industrial waste waters harm living organisms.

Municipal solid wastes also create problems and must be disposed off

in landfills. Disposal of hazardous wastes like defunct ships, radioactive

wastes and e-wastes requires additional efforts. Soil pollution primarily

results from agricultural chemicals (e.g., pesticides) and leachates from

solid wastes deposited over it.

Two major environmental issues of global nature are increasing

greenhouse effect, which is warming Earth, and depletion of ozone in

the stratosphere. Enhanced greenhouse effect is mainly due to

increased emission of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs.,

and also due to deforestation. It may drastically change rainfall pattern,

global temperature, besides deleteriously affecting living organisms.

Ozone in the stratosphere, which protects us from harmful effects of

ultraviolet radiation, is depleting fast due to emission of CFCs thus

increasing the risks of skin cancer, mutation and other disorders.

this magnitude when human beings sacrificed their lives for the cause of

the environment. The Government of India has recently instituted the

Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for individuals or

communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary courage

and dedication in protecting wildlife.

You may have heard of the Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas.

In 1974, local women showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from

the axe of contractors by hugging them. People all over the world have

acclaimed the Chipko movement.

Realising the significance of participation by local communities,

the Government of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of

Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the local

communities for protecting and managing forests. In return for their

services to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products

(e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.), and thus the forest can be

conserved in a sustainable manner.

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BIOLOGY

EXERCISES

1. What are the various constituents of domestic sewage? Discuss the

effects of sewage discharge on a river.

2. List all the wastes that you generate, at home, school or during your

trips to other places. Could you very easily reduce the generation of

these wastes? Which would be difficult or rather impossible to reduce?

3. Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures need

to be taken to control global warming?

4. Match the items given in column A and B:

Column A Column B

(a) Catalytic converter (i) Particulate matter

(b) Electrostatic precipitator (ii) Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides

(d) Landfills (iv) Solid wastes

5. Write critical notes on the following:

(a) Eutrophication

(b) Biological magnification

6. Why does ozone hole form over Antarctica? How will enhanced ultraviolet

radiation affect us?

7. Discuss the role of women and communities in protection and

conservation of forests.

8. What measures, as an individual, would you take to reduce

environmental pollution?

9. Discuss briefly the following:

(a) Radioactive wastes

(b) Defunct ships and e-wastes

10. What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi?

Has air quality improved in Delhi?

11. Discuss briefly the following:

(a) Greenhouse gases

(b) Catalytic converter

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