The work of Mendel and others who followed him gave us an

idea of inheritance patterns. However the nature of those ‘factors’

which determine the phenotype was not very clear. As these

‘factors’ represent the genetic basis of inheritance, understanding

the structure of genetic material and the structural basis of

genotype and phenotype conversion became the focus of

attention in biology for the next century. The entire body of

molecular biology was a consequent development with major

contributions from Watson, Crick, Nirenberg, Khorana, Kornbergs

(father and son), Benzer, Monod, Brenner, etc. A parallel problem

being tackled was the mechanism of evolution. Awareness in the

areas of molecular genetics, structural biology and bio informatics

have enriched our understanding of the molecular basis of

evolution. In this unit the structure and function of DNA and the

story and theory of evolution have been examined and explained.

Chapter 5

Principles of Inheritance

and Variation

Chapter 6

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Chapter 7

Evolution

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James Dewey Watson was born in Chicago on 6 April 1928. In 1947, he

received B.Sc. degree in Zoology. During these years his interest in

bird-watching had matured into a serious desire to learn genetics. This

became possible when he received a Fellowship for graduate study in

Zoology at Indiana University, Bloomington, where he received his Ph.D.

degree in 1950 on a study of the effect of hard X-rays on bacteriophage

multiplication.

He met Crick and discovered their common interest in solving the

DNA structure. Their first serious effort, was unsatisfactory. Their second effort

based upon more experimental evidence and better appreciation of

the nucleic acid literature, resulted, early in March 1953, in the proposal

of the complementary double-helical configuration.

Francis Harry Compton Crick was born on 8 June 1916, at Northampton,

England. He studied physics at University College, London and obtained

a B.Sc. in 1937. He completed Ph.D. in 1954 on a thesis entitled “X-ray

Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins”.

A critical influence in Crick’s career was his friendship with J. D.

Watson, then a young man of 23, leading in 1953 to the proposal of

the double-helical structure for DNA and the replication scheme. Crick

was made an F.R.S. in 1959.

The honours to Watson with Crick include: the John Collins Warren

Prize of the Massachusetts General Hospital, in 1959; the Lasker Award,

in 1960; the Research Corporation Prize, in 1962 and above all, the

Nobel Prize in 1962.

JAMES WATSON

FRANCIS CRICK

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CHAPTER 5

Have you ever wondered why an elephant always gives

birth only to a baby elephant and not some other animal?

Or why a mango seed forms only a mango plant and not

any other plant?

Given that they do, are the offspring identical to their

parents? Or do they show differences in some of their

characteristics? Have you ever wondered why siblings

sometimes look so similar to each other? Or sometimes

even so different?

These and several related questions are dealt with,

scientifically, in a branch of biology known as Genetics.

This subject deals with the inheritance, as well as the

variation of characters from parents to offspring.

Inheritance is the process by which characters are passed

on from parent to progeny; it is the basis of heredity.

Variation is the degree by which progeny differ from their

parents.

Humans knew from as early as 8000-1000 B.C. that

one of the causes of variation was hidden in sexual

reproduction. They exploited the variations that were

naturally present in the wild populations of plants and

animals to selectively breed and select for organisms that

possessed desirable characters. For example, through

artificial selection and domestication from ancestral

PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE

AND VARIATION

5.1 Mendel’s Laws of

Inheritance

5.2 Inheritance of One Gene

5.3 Inheritance of Two Genes

5.4 Sex Determination

5.5 Mutation

5.6 Genetic Disorders

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wild cows, we have well-known Indian

breeds, e.g., Sahiwal cows in Punjab. We

must, however, recognise that though our

ancestors knew about the inheritance of

characters and variation, they had very

little idea about the scientific basis of these

phenomena.

5.1 MENDEL

’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

It was during the mid-nineteenth century that

headway was made in the understanding of

inheritance. Gregor Mendel, conducted

hybridisation experiments on garden peas for

seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the

laws of inheritance in living organisms. During

Mendel’s investigations into inheritance

patterns it was for the first time that statistical

analysis and mathematical logic were applied

to problems in biology. His experiments had a

large sampling size, which gave greater

credibility to the data that he collected. Also,

the confirmation of his inferences from

experiments on successive generations of his

test plants, proved that his results pointed to

general rules of inheritance rather than being

unsubstantiated ideas. Mendel investigated

characters in the garden pea plant that were

manifested as two opposing traits, e.g., tall or

dwarf plants, yellow or green seeds. This

allowed him to set up a basic framework of

rules governing inheritance, which was

expanded on by later scientists to account for

all the diverse natural observations and the

complexity inherent in them.

Mendel conducted such artificial

pollination/cross pollination experiments

using several true-breeding pea lines. A true-

breeding line is one that, having undergone

continuous self-pollination, shows the stable trait inheritance and

expression for several generations. Mendel selected 14 true-breeding pea

plant varieties, as pairs which were similar except for one character with

contrasting traits. Some of the contrasting traits selected were smooth or

wrinkled seeds, yellow or green seeds, inflated (full) or constricted green

or yellow pods and tall or dwarf plants (Figure 5.1, Table 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Seven pairs of contrasting traits in

pea plant studied by Mendel

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PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

5.2 INHERITANCE OF ONE GENE

Let us take the example of one such

hybridisation experiment carried out by

Mendel where he crossed tall and dwarf pea

plants to study the inheritance of one gene

(Figure 5.2). He collected the seeds produced

as a result of this cross and grew them to

generate plants of the first hybrid generation.

This generation is also called the Filial

progeny or the F

. Mendel observed that all

the F

progeny plants were tall, like one of

its parents; none were dwarf (Figure 5.3). He

made similar observations for the other pairs

of traits – he found that the F

always

resembled either one of the parents, and that

the trait of the other parent was not seen in

them.

Mendel then self-pollinated the tall F

plants and to his surprise found that in the

Filial

generation some of the offspring were

‘dwarf’; the character that was not seen in

the F

generation was now expressed. The

proportion of plants that were dwarf were

1/4

of the F

plants while 3/4

of the F

plants were tall. The tall and

dwarf traits were identical to their parental type and did not show any

blending, that is all the offspring were either tall or dwarf, none were of in-

between height (Figure 5.3).

Similar results were obtained with the other traits that he studied:

only one of the parental traits was expressed in the F

generation while at

the F

stage both the traits were exp

ressed in the proportion 3:1. The

contrasting traits did not show any blending at either F

or F

stage.

Figure 5.2 Steps in making a cross in pea

Table 5.1: Contrasting Traits Studied by

Mendel in Pea

S.No. Characters Contrasting Traits

1. Stem height Tall/dwarf

2. Flower colour Violet/white

3. Flower position Axial/terminal

4. Pod shape Inflated/constricted

5. Pod colour Green/yellow

6. Seed shape Round/wrinkled

7. Seed colour Yellow/green

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Based on these observations,

Mendel proposed that something

was being stably passed down,

unchanged, from parent to offspring

through the gametes, over

successive generations. He called

these things as ‘factors’. Now we call

them as genes. Genes, therefore, are

the units of inheritance. They

contain the information that is

required to express a particular trait

in an organism. Genes which code

for a pair of contrasting traits are

known as alleles, i.e., they are

slightly different forms of the same

gene.

If we use alphabetical symbols

for each gene, then the capital letter

is used for the trait expressed at the

stage and the small alphabet for

the other trait. For example, in case

of the character of height, T is used

for the Tall trait and t for the ‘dwarf’,

and T and t are alleles of each other.

Hence, in plants the pair of alleles

for height would be TT, Tt or tt.

Mendel also proposed that in a true

breeding, tall or dwarf pea variety

the allelic pair of genes for height are

identical or homozygous, TT and tt, respectively. TT and tt are called

the genotype of the plant while the descriptive terms tall and dwarf are

the phenotype. What then would be the phenotype of a plant that had a

genotype Tt?

As Mendel found the phenotype of the F

heterozygote Tt to be exactly

like the TT parent in appearance, he proposed that in a pair of dissimilar

factors, one dominates the other (as in the F

) and hence is called the

dominant factor while the other factor is recessive . In this case T (for

tallness) is dominant over t (for dwarfness), that is recessive. He observed

identical behaviour for all the other characters/trait-pairs that he studied.

It is convenient (and logical) to use the capital and lower case of an

alphabetical symbol to remember this concept of dominance and

recessiveness. (Do not use T for tall and d for dwarf because you will

find it difficult to remember whether

T and d are alleles of the same

gene/character or not). Alleles can be similar as in the case of homozygotes

TT and tt or can be dissimilar as in the case of the heterozygote Tt. Since

Figure 5.3 Diagrammatic representation

of monohybrid cross

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PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

the Tt plant is heterozygous for genes controlling

one character (height), it is a monohybrid and the

cross between TT and tt is a monohybrid cross.

From the observation that the recessive parental

trait is expressed without any blending in the F

generation, we can infer that, when the tall and

dwarf plant produce gametes, by the process of

meiosis, the alleles of the parental pair separate or

segregate from each other and only one allele is

transmitted to a gamete. This segregation of alleles

is a random process and so there is a 50 per cent

chance of a gamete containing either allele, as has

been verified by the results of the crossings. In this

way the gametes of the tall TT plants have the allele

T and the gametes of the dwarf

tt plants have the

allele t. During fertilisation the two alleles, T from

one parent say, through the pollen, and t from the

other parent, then through the egg, are united to

produce zygotes that have one T allele and one t

allele. In other words the hybrids have Tt. Since

these hybrids contain alleles which express

contrasting traits, the plants are heterozygous. The

production of gametes by the parents, the formation

of the zygotes, the F

and F

plants can be

understood from a diagram called Punnett Square

as shown in Figure 5.4. It was developed by a British

geneticist, Reginald C. Punnett. It is a graphical

representation to calculate the probability of all

possible genotypes of offspring in a genetic cross.

The possible gametes are written on two sides,

usually the top row and left columns. All possible

combinations are represented in boxes below in the

squares, which generates a square output form.

The Punnett Square shows the parental tall TT

(male) and dwarf tt (female) plants, the gametes

produced by them and, the F

Tt progeny. The F

plants of genotype Tt are self-pollinated. The

symbols

& and

% are used to denote the female

(eggs) and male (pollen

) of the F

generation, respectively. The F

plant of

the genotype Tt when self-pollinated, produces gametes of the genotype

T and t in equal proportion. When fertilisation takes place, the pollen

grains of genotype T have a 50 per cent chance to pollinate eggs of the

genotype T, as well as of genotype t. Also pollen grains of genotype t have

a 50 per cent chance of pollinating eggs of genotype T, as well as of

Figure 5.4 A Punnett square used to

understand a typical monohybrid

cross conducted by Mendel

between true-breeding tall plants

and true-breeding dwarf plants

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genotype t. As a result of random fertilisation, the resultant zygotes can

be of the genotypes TT, Tt or tt.

From the Punnett square it is easily seen that 1/4

of the random

fertilisations lead to TT, 1/2 lead to Tt and 1/4

to tt. Though the F

have a genotype of Tt, but the phenotypic character seen is ‘tall’. At F

3/4

of the plants are tall, where some of them are

TT while others are

Tt. Externally it is not possible to distinguish between the plants with

the genotypes TT and Tt. Hence, within the genopytic pair Tt only one

character ‘T’ tall is expressed. Hence the character T or ‘tall’ is said to

dominate over the other allele t or ‘dwarf’ character. It is thus due to this

dominance of one character over the other that all the F

are tall (though

the genotype is Tt) and in the F

3/4

of the plants are tall (though

genotypically 1/2

are Tt and only 1/4

are TT). This leads to a phenotypic

ratio of 3/4

tall : (1/4

TT + 1/2 Tt) and 1/4

tt, i.e., a 3:1 ratio, but a

genotypic ratio of 1:2:1.

The 1/4 : 1/2 : 1/4 ratio of TT: Tt: tt is mathematically condensable

to the form of the binomial expression (ax +by)

, that has the gametes

bearing genes T or t in equal frequency of ½. The expression is expanded

as given below :

(1/2T + 1/2 t)

= (1/2T + 1/2t) X (1/2T + 1/2t) = 1/4 TT + 1/2Tt + 1/4 tt

Mendel self-pollinated the F

plants and found that dwarf F

plants

continued to generate dwarf plants in F

and F

generations. He concluded

that the genotype of the dwarfs was homozygous – tt. What do you think

he would have got had he self-pollinated a tall F

plant?

From the preceeding paragraphs it is clear that though the genotypic

ratios can be calculated using mathematical probability, by simply looking

at the phenotype of a dominant trait, it is not possible to know the

genotypic composition. That is, for example, whether a tall plant from F

or F

has TT or Tt composition, cannot be predicted. Therefore, to determine

the genotype of a tall plant at F

, Mendel crossed the tall plant from F

with a dwarf plant. This he called a test cross. In a typical test cross an

organism (pea plants here) showing a dominant phenotype (and whose

genotype is to be determined) is crossed with the recessive parent instead

of self-crossing. The progenies of such a cross can easily be analysed to

predict the genotype of the test organism. Figure 5.5 shows the results of

typical test cross where violet colour flower (W) is dominant over white

colour flower (w).

Using Punnett square, try to find out the nature of offspring of a test cross.

What ratio did you get?

Using the genotypes of this cross, can you give a general definition for

a test cross?

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PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

Figure 5.5 Diagrammatic representation of a test cross

Based on his observations on monohybrid crosses Mendel proposed

two general rules to consolidate his understanding of inheritance in

monohybrid crosses. Today these rules are called the Principles or

Laws of Inheritance: the First Law or Law of Dominance and the

Second Law or Law of Segregation.

5.2.1 Law of Dominance

(i) Characters are controlled by discrete units called factors.

(ii) Factors occur in pairs.

(iii) In a dissimilar pair of factors one member of the pair dominates

(dominant) the other (recessive).

The law of dominance is used to explain the expression of only one of

the parental characters in a monohybrid cross in the F

and the expression

of both in the F

. It also explains the proportion of 3:1 obtained at the F

5.2.2 Law of Segregation

This law is based on the fact that the alleles do not show any blending

and that both the characters are recovered as such in the F

generation

though one of these is not seen at the F

stage. Though the parents contain

two alleles during gamete formation, the factors or alleles of a pair segregate

from each other such that a gamete receives only one of the two factors.

Of course, a homozygous parent produces all gametes that are similar

while a heterozygous one produces two kinds of gametes each having

one allele with equal proportion.

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5.2.2.1 Incomplete Dominance

When experiments on peas were repeated using other

traits in other plants, it was found that sometimes

the F

had a phenotype that did not resemble either

of the two parents and was in between the two. The

inheritance of flower colour in the dog flower

(snapdragon or Antirrhinum sp.) is a good example

to understand incomplete dominance. In a cross

between true-breeding red-flowered (RR) and true-

breeding white-flowered plants (rr), the F

(Rr) was

pink (Figure 5.6). When the F

was self-pollinated

the F

resulted in the following ratio 1 (RR) Red: 2

(Rr) Pink: 1 (rr) White. Here the genotype ratios were

exactly as we would expect in any mendelian

monohybrid cross, but the phenotype ratios had

changed from the 3:1 dominant : recessive ratio.

What happened was that R was not completely

dominant over r and this made it possible to

distinguish Rr as pink from RR (red) and

rr (white) .

Explanation of the concept of dominance:

What exactly is dominance? Why are some alleles

dominant and some recessive? To tackle these

questions, we must understand what a gene does.

Every gene, as you know by now, contains the

information to express a particular trait. In a

diploid organism, there are two copies of each

gene, i.e., as a pair of alleles. Now, these two alleles

need not always be identical, as in a heterozygote.

One of them may be different due to some changes

that it has undergone (about which you will read

further on, and in the next chapter) which modifies

the information that particular allele contains.

Let’s take an example of a gene that contains

the information for producing an enzyme. Now

there are two copies of this gene, the two allelic

forms. Let us assume (as is more common) that

the normal allele produces the normal enzyme

that is needed for the transformation of a

substrate S. Theoretically, the modified allele could be responsible for

production of –

(i) the normal/less efficient enzyme, or

(ii) a non-functional enzyme, or

(iii) no enzyme at all

Figure 5.6 Results of monohybrid cross in

the plant Snapdragon, where

one allele is incompletely

dominant over the other allele

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PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

In the first case, the modified allele is equivalent to the unmodified allele,

i.e., it will produce the same phenotype/trait, i.e., result in the transformation

of substrate S. Such equivalent allele pairs are very common. But, if the

allele produces a non-functional enzyme or no enzyme, the phenotype may

be effected. The phenotype/trait will only be dependent on the functioning

of the unmodified allele. The unmodified (functioning) allele, which represents

the original phenotype is the dominant allele and the modified allele is

generally the recessive allele. Hence, in the example above the recessive trait

is seen due to non-functional enzyme or because no enzyme is produced.

5.2.2.2 Co-dominance

Till now we were discussing crosses where the F

resembled either of the

two parents (dominance) or was in-between (incomplete dominance). But,

in the case of co-dominance the F

generation resembles both parents. A

good example is different types of red blood cells that determine ABO

blood grouping in human beings. ABO blood groups are controlled by

the gene I. The plasma membrane of the red blood cells has sugar polymers

that protrude from its surface and the kind of sugar is controlled by the

gene. The gene (I) has three alleles I

, I

and i. The alleles I

and I

produce

a slightly different form of the sugar while allele

i does not produce any

sugar. Because humans are diploid organisms, each person possesses

any two of the three I gene alleles. I

and I

are completely dominant over

i, in other words when I

and i are present only I

expresses (because i

does not produce any sugar), and when I

and i are present I

expresses.

But when I

and I

are present together they both express their own types

of sugars: this is because of co-dominance. Hence red blood cells have

both A and B types of sugars. Since there are three different alleles, there

are six different combinations of these three alleles that are possible, and

therefore, a total of six different genotypes of the human ABO blood types

(Table 5.2). How many phenotypes are possible?

Table 5.2: Table Showing the Genetic Basis of Blood Groups

in Human Population

Allele from Allele from Genotype of Blood

Parent 1 Parent 2 offspring types of

offspring

i I

i A

i I

i B

i i i i O

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Do you realise that the example of ABO blood grouping also provides

a good example of multiple alleles? Here you can see that there are

more than two, i.e., three alleles, governing the same character. Since in

an individual only two alleles can be present, multiple alleles can be found

only when population studies are made.

Occasionally, a single gene product may produce more than one effect.

For example, starch synthesis in pea seeds is controlled by one gene. It

has two alleles (B and b). Starch is synthesised effectively by BB

homozygotes and therefore, large starch grains are produced. In contrast,

bb homozygotes have lesser efficiency in starch synthesis and produce

smaller starch grains. After maturation of the seeds, BB seeds are round

and the bb seeds are wrinkled. Heterozygotes produce round seeds, and

so B seems to be the dominant allele. But, the starch grains produced are

of intermediate size in

Bb seeds. So if starch grain size is considered as

the phenotype, then from this angle, the alleles show incomplete

dominance.

Therefore, dominance is not an autonomous feature of a gene or the

product that it has information for. It depends as much on the gene

product and the production of a particular phenotype from this product

as it does on the particular phenotype that we choose to examine, in case

more than one phenotype is influenced by the same gene.

5.3 INHERITANCE OF TWO GENES

Mendel also worked with and crossed pea plants that differed in two

characters, as is seen in the cross between a pea plant that has seeds with

yellow colour and round shape and one that had seeds of green colour

and wrinkled shape (Figure5.7). Mendel found that the seeds resulting

from the crossing of the parents, had yellow coloured and round shaped

seeds. Here can you tell which of the characters in the pairs yellow/

green colour and round/wrinkled shape was dominant?

Thus, yellow colour was dominant over green and round shape

dominant over wrinkled. These results were identical to those that he got

when he made separate monohybrid crosses between yellow and green

seeded plants and between round and wrinkled seeded plants.

Let us use the genotypic symbols Y for dominant yellow seed colour

and y for recessive green seed colour, R for round shaped seeds and r for

wrinkled seed shape. The genotype of the parents can then be written as

RRYY and rryy. The cross between the two plants can be written down

as in Figure 5.7 showing the genotypes of the parent plants. The gametes

RY and ry unite on fertilisation to produce the F

hybrid RrYy. When

Mendel self hybridised the F

plants he found that 3/4

of F

plants had

yellow seeds and 1/4

had green. The yellow and green colour segregated

in a 3:1 ratio. Round and wrinkled seed shape also segregated in a 3:1

ratio; just like in a monohybrid cross.

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Figure 5.7 Results of a dihybrid cross where the two parents differed in two pairs of

contrasting traits: seed colour and seed shape

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5.3.1 Law of Independent Assortment

In the dihybrid cross (Figure 5.7), the phenotypes round,yellow;

wrinkled, yellow; round, green and wrinkled, green appeared in the

ratio 9:3:3:1. Such a ratio was observed for several pairs of characters

that Mendel studied.

The ratio of 9:3:3:1 can be derived as a combination series of 3 yellow:

1 green, with 3 round : 1 wrinkled. This derivation can be written

as follows:

(3 Round : 1 Wrinkled) (3 Yellow : 1 Green) = 9 Round, Yellow : 3

Wrinkled, Yellow: 3 Round, Green : 1 Wrinkled, Green

Based upon such observations on dihybrid crosses (crosses between

plants differing in two traits) Mendel proposed a second set of generalisations

that we call Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment. The law states that

‘when two pairs of traits are combined in a hybrid, segregation of one pair

of characters is independent of the other pair of characters’.

The Punnett square can be effectively used to understand the

independent segregation of the two pairs of genes during meiosis and

the production of eggs and pollen in the F

RrYy plant. Consider the

segregation of one pair of genes R and r. Fifty per cent of the gametes

have the gene R and the other 50 per cent have r. Now besides each

gamete having either R or r, it should also have the allele Y or y. The

important thing to remember here is that segregation of 50 per cent R

and 50 per cent r is independent from the segregation of 50 per cent

Y and 50 per cent y. Therefore, 50 per cent of the r bearing gametes

has Y and the other 50 per cent has y. Similarly, 50 per cent of the R

bearing gametes has Y and the other 50 per cent has y. Thus there are

four genotypes of gametes (four types of pollen and four types of eggs).

The four types are RY, Ry, rY and ry each with a frequency of 25 per

cent or 1/4

of the total gametes produced. When you write down the

four types of eggs and pollen on the two sides of a Punnett square it is

very easy to derive the composition of the zygotes that give rise to the

plants (Figure 5.7). Although there are 16 squares how many

different types of genotypes and phenotypes are formed? Note them

down in the format given.

Can you, using the Punnett square data work out the genotypic ratio

at the F

stage and fill in the format given? Is the genotypic ratio

also 9:3:3:1?

S.No. Genotypes found in F

Their expected Phenotypes

5.3.2 Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

Mendel published his work on inheritance of characters in 1865

but for several reasons, it remained unrecognised till 1900. Firstly,

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communication was not easy (as it is now) in those days and his work

could not be widely publicised. Secondly, his concept of genes (or

factors, in Mendel’s words) as stable and discrete units that controlled

the expression of traits and, of the pair of alleles which did not ‘blend’

with each other, was not accepted by his contemporaries as an

explanation for the apparently continuous variation seen in nature.

Thirdly, Mendel’s approach of using mathematics to explain biological

phenomena was totally new and unacceptable to many of the

biologists of his time. Finally, though Mendel’s work suggested that

factors (genes) were discrete units, he could not provide any physical

proof for the existence of factors or say what they were made of.

In 1900, three Scientists (de Vries, Correns and von Tschermak)

independently rediscovered Mendel’s results on the inheritance of

characters. Also, by this time due to advancements in microscopy that

were taking place, scientists were able to carefully observe cell division.

This led to the discovery of structures in the nucleus that appeared to

double and divide just before each cell division. These were called

chromosomes (colored bodies, as they were visualised by staining). By

1902, the chromosome movement during meiosis had been worked out.

Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri noted that the behaviour of

chromosomes was parallel to the behaviour of genes and used

chromosome movement (Figure 5.8) to explain Mendel’s laws (Table 5.3).

Recall that you have studied the behaviour of chromosomes during mitosis

(equational division) and during meiosis (reduction division). The

important things to remember are that chromosomes as well as genes

occur in pairs. The two alleles of a gene pair are located on homologous

sites on homologous chromosomes.

Figure 5.8 Meiosis and germ cell formation in a cell with four chromosomes.

Can you see how chromosomes segregate when germ cells

are formed?

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Possibility I Possibility II

One long orange and short green One long orange and short red

chromosome and long yellow and chromosome and long yellow and

short red chromosome at the short green chromosome at the

same pole same pole

Figure 5.9 Independent assortment of chromosomes

Can you tell which of these columns A or B represent the chromosome

and which represents the gene? How did you decide?

During Anaphase of meiosis I, the two chromosome pairs can align at

the metaphase plate independently of each other (Figure 5.9). To

understand this, compare the chromosomes of four different colour in

the left and right columns. In the left column (Possibility I) orange and

green is segregating together. But in the right hand column (Possibility

II) the orange chromosome is segregating with the red chromosomes.

Table 5.3: A Comparison between the Behaviour of Chromosomes

and Genes

Occur in pairs

Segregate at the time of gamete

formation such that only one of each

pair is transmitted to a gamete

Independent pairs segregate

independently of each other

Occur in pairs

Segregate at gamete formation and only

one of each pair is transmitted to a

gamete

One pair segregates independently of

another pair

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.10 Drosophila

melanogaster (a) Male

(b) Female

Sutton and Boveri argued that the pairing and separation of a

pair of chromosomes would lead to the segregation of a pair of

factors they carried. Sutton united the knowledge of chromosomal

segregation with Mendelian principles and called it the

chromosomal theory of inheritance.

Following this synthesis of ideas, experimental verification of

the chromosomal theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan

and his colleagues, led to discovering the basis for the variation

that sexual reproduction produced.

Morgan worked with the tiny

fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster (Figure 5.10), which were

found very suitable for such studies. They could be grown on

simple synthetic medium in the laboratory. They complete their life

cycle in about two weeks, and a single mating could produce a large

number of progeny flies. Also, there was a clear differentiation of the

sexes – the male and female flies are easily distinguishable. Also, it

has many types of hereditary variations that can be seen with low

power microscopes.

5.3.3 Linkage and Recombination

Morgan carried out several dihybrid crosses in Drosophila to study genes

that were sex-linked. The crosses were similar to the dihybrid crosses carried

out by Mendel in peas. For example Morgan hybridised yellow-bodied,

white-eyed females to brown-bodied, red-eyed males and intercrossed their

progeny. He observed that the two genes did not segregate independently

of each other and the F

ratio deviated very significantly from the 9:3:3:1

ratio (expected when the two genes are independent).

Morgan and his group knew that the genes were located on the X

chromosome (Section 5.4) and saw quickly that when the two genes in a

dihybrid cross were situated on the same chromosome, the proportion

of parental gene combinations were much higher than the non-parental

type. Morgan attributed this due to the physical association or linkage

of the two genes and coined the term linkage to describe this physical

association of genes on a chromosome and the term recombination to

describe the generation of non-parental gene combinations (Figure 5.11).

Morgan and his group also found that even when genes were grouped

on the same chromosome, some genes were very tightly linked (showed

very low recombination) (Figure 5.11, Cross A) while others were loosely

linked (showed higher recombination) (Figure 5.11, Cross B). For

example he found that the genes white and yellow were very tightly linked

and showed only 1.3 per cent recombination while white and miniature

wing showed 37.2 per cent recombination. His student Alfred

Sturtevant used the frequency of recombination between gene pairs

on the same chromosome as a measure of the distance between genes

and ‘mapped’ their position on the chromosome. Today genetic maps

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Figure 5.11 Linkage: Results of two dihybrid crosses conducted by Morgan. Cross A shows

crossing between gene y and w; Cross B shows crossing between genes w and m.

Here dominant wild type alleles are represented with (+) sign in superscript

Note: The strength of linkage between y and w is higher than w and m.

are extensively used as a starting point in the sequencing of whole

genomes as was done in the case of the Human Genome Sequencing

Project, described later.

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5.4 POLYGENIC INHERITANCE

Mendel’s studies mainly described those traits that have distinct alternate

forms such as flower colour which are either purple or white. But if you

look around you will find that there are many traits which are not so

distinct in their occurrence and are spread across a gradient. For example,

in humans we don’t just have tall or short people as two distinct

alternatives but a whole range of possible heights. Such traits are generally

controlled by three or more genes and are thus called as polygenic traits.

Besides the involvement of multiple genes polygenic inheritance also takes

into account the influence of environment. Human skin colour is another

classic example for this. In a polygenic trait the phenotype reflects the

contribution of each allele, i.e., the effect of each allele is additive. To

understand this better let us assume that three genes A, B, C control skin

colour in human with the dominant forms A, B and C responsible for

dark skin colour and the recessive forms a, b and c for light skin colour.

The genotype with all the dominant alleles (AABBCC) will have the darkest

skin colour and that with all the recessive alleles (aabbcc) will have the

lightest skin colour. As expected the genotype with three dominant alleles

and three recessive alleles will have an intermediate skin colour. In this

manner the number of each type of alleles in the genotype would determine

the darkness or lightness of the skin in an individual.

5.5 PLEIOTROPY

We have so far seen the effect of a gene on a single phenotype or trait.

There are however instances where a single gene can exhibit multiple

phenotypic expression. Such a gene is called a pleiotropic gene. The

underlying mechanism of pleiotropy in most cases is the effect of a gene

on metabolic pathways which contribute towards different phenotypes.

An example of this is the disease phenylketonuria, which occurs in

humans. The disease is caused by mutation in the gene that codes for the

enzyme phenyl alanine hydroxylase (single gene mutation). This manifests

itself through phenotypic expression characterised by mental

retardation and a reduction in hair and skin pigmentation.

5.6 SEX DETERMINATION

The mechanism of sex determination has always been a puzzle before the

geneticists. The initial clue about the genetic/chromosomal mechanism

of sex determination can be traced back to some of the experiments carried

out in insects. In fact, the cytological observations made in a number of

insects led to the development of the concept of genetic/chromosomal

basis of sex-determination. Henking (1891) could trace a specific nuclear

structure all through spermatogenesis in a few insects, and it was also

observed by him that 50 per cent of the sperm received this structure

after spermatogenesis, whereas the other 50 per cent sperm did not receive

it. Henking gave a name to this structure as the X body but he could not

explain its significance. Further investigations by other scientists led to

the conclusion that the ‘X body’ of Henking was in fact a chromosome

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and that is why it was given the name

X-chromosome. It was also observed that in

a large number of insects the mechanism of

sex determination is of the XO type, i.e., all

eggs bear an additional X-chromosome

besides the other chromosomes

(autosomes). On the other hand, some of the

sperms bear the X-chromosome whereas

some do not. Eggs fertilised by sperm having

an X-chromosome become females and,

those fertilised by sperms that do not have

an X-chromosome become males. Do you

think the number of chromosomes in the

male and female are equal? Due to the

involvement of the X-chromosome in the

determination of sex, it was designated to

be the sex chromosome, and the rest of the

chromosomes were named as

autosomes.Grasshopper is an example of

XO type of sex determination in which the

males have only one X-chromosome besides

the autosomes, whereas females have a pair

of X-chromosomes.

These observations led to the

investigation of a number of species to

understand the mechanism of sex

determination. In a number of other insects

and mammals including man, XY type of sex

determination is seen where both male and

female have same number of chromosomes.

Among the males an X-chromosome is

present but its counter part is distinctly

smaller and called the Y-chromosome.

Females, however, have a pair of X-

chromosomes. Both males and females bear

same number of autosomes. Hence, the males have autosomes plus XY,

while female have autosomes plus XX. In human beings and in

Drosophila the males have one X and one Y chromosome, whereas females

have a pair of X-chromosomes besides autosomes (Figure 5.12 a, b).

In the above description you have studied about two types of sex

determining mechanisms, i.e., XO type and XY type. But in both cases

males produce two different types of gametes, (a) either with or without

X-chromosome or (b) some gametes with X-chromosome and some with

Y-chromosome. Such types of sex determination mechanism is designated

to be the example of male heterogamety. In some other organisms, e.g.,

birds, a different mechanism of sex determination is observed (Figure

5.12 c). In this case the total number of chromosome is same in both

males and females. But two different types of gametes in terms of the sex

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5.12 Determination of sex by chromosomal

differences: (a,b) Both in humans and

in Drosophila, the female has a pair of

XX chromosomes (homogametic) and the

male XY (heterogametic) composition;

dissimilar chromosomes ZW and male

two similar ZZ chromosomes

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chromosomes, are produced by females, i.e., female heterogamety. In

order to have a distinction with the mechanism of sex determination

described earlier, the two different sex chromosomes of a female bird has

been designated to be the Z and W chromosomes. In these organisms the

females have one Z and one W chromosome, whereas males have a pair of

Z-chromosomes besides the autosomes.

5.6.1 Sex Determination in Humans

It has already been mentioned that the sex determining mechanism in

case of humans is XY type. Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present,

22 pairs are exactly same in both males and females; these are the

autosomes. A pair of X-chromosomes are present in the female, whereas

the presence of an X and Y chromosome are determinant of the male

characteristic. During spermatogenesis among males, two types of

gametes are produced. 50 per cent of the total sperm produced carry

the X-chromosome and the rest 50 per cent has Y-chromosome besides

the autosomes. Females, however, produce only one type of ovum with

an X-chromosome. There is an equal probability of fertilisation of the

ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome. In case the

ovum fertilises with a sperm carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops

into a female (XX) and the fertilisation of ovum with Y-chromosome

carrying sperm results into a male offspring. Thus, it is evident that it

is the genetic makeup of the sperm that determines the sex of the child.

It is also evident that in each pregnancy there is always 50 per cent

probability of either a male or a female child. It is unfortunate that in

our society women are blamed for giving birth to female children and

have been ostracised and ill-treated because of this false notion.

5.6.2 Sex Determination in Honey Bee

The sex determination in honey bee is

based on the number of sets of

chromosomes an individual receives. An

offspring formed from the union of a

sperm and an egg develops as a female

(queen or worker), and an unfertilised

egg develops as a male (drone) by means

of parthenogenesis. This means that the

males have half the number of

chromosomes than that of a female. The

females are diploid having 32

chromosomes and males are haploid, i.e., having 16 chromosomes.

This is called as haplodiploid sex-determination system and has special

characteristic features such as the males produce sperms by mitosis

(Figure 5.13), they do not have father and thus cannot have sons, but

have a grandfather and can have grandsons.

How is the sex-determination mechanism different in the birds?

Is the sperm or the egg responsible for the sex of the chicks?

Figure 5.13 Sex determination in honey bee

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5.7 MUTATION

Mutation is a phenomenon which results in alteration of DNA sequences

and consequently results in changes in the genotype and the phenotype

of an organism. In addition to recombination, mutation is another

phenomenon that leads to variation in DNA.

As you will learn in Chapter 6, one DNA helix runs continuously from

one end to the other in each chromatid, in a highly supercoiled form.

Therefore loss (deletions) or gain (insertion/duplication) of a segment of

DNA, result in alteration in chromosomes. Since genes are known to be

located on chromosomes, alteration in chromosomes results in

abnormalities or aberrations. Chromosomal

aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells.

In addition to the above, mutation also arise due

to change in a single base pair of DNA. This is known

as point mutation. A classical example of such a

mutation is sickle cell anemia. Deletions and insertions

of base pairs of DNA, causes frame-shift mutations

(see Chapter 6).

The mechanism of mutation is beyond the scope

of this discussion, at this level. However, there are

many chemical and physical factors that induce

mutations. These are referred to as mutagens. UV

radiations can cause mutations in organisms – it is a

mutagen.

5.8 GENETIC DISORDERS

5.8.1 Pedigree Analysis

The idea that disorders are inherited has been

prevailing in the human society since long. This was

based on the heritability of certain characteristic

features in families. After the rediscovery of Mendel’s

work the practice of analysing inheritance pattern of

traits in human beings began. Since it is evident that

control crosses that can be performed in pea plant or

some other organisms, are not possible in case of

human beings, study of the family history about

inheritance of a particular trait provides an

alternative. Such an analysis of traits in a several of generations of a family

is called the pedigree analysis. In the pedigree analysis the inheritance

of a particular trait is represented in the family tree over generations.

In human genetics, pedigree study provides a strong tool, which is

utilised to trace the inheritance of a specific trait, abnormality or disease.

Some of the important standard symbols used in the pedigree analysis

have been shown in Figure 5.13.

As you have studied in this chapter, each and every feature in any

organism is controlled by one or the other gene located on the DNA present

Figure 5.13 Symbols used in the human

pedigree analysis

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in the chromosome. DNA is the carrier of genetic information. It is hence

transmitted from one generation to the other without any change or

alteration. However, changes or alteration do take place occasionally. Such

an alteration or change in the genetic material is referred to as mutation.

A number of disorders in human beings have been found to be associated

with the inheritance of changed or altered genes or chromosomes.

5.8.2 Mendelian Disorders

Broadly, genetic disorders may be grouped into two categories – Mendelian

disorders and Chromosomal disorders. Mendelian disorders are mainly

determined by alteration or mutation in the single gene. These disorders

are transmitted to the offspring on the same lines as we have studied in

the principle of inheritance. The pattern of inheritance of such Mendelian

disorders can be traced in a family by the pedigree analysis. Most common

and prevalent Mendelian disorders are Haemophilia, Cystic fibrosis, Sickle-

cell anaemia, Colour blindness, Phenylketonuria, Thalassemia, etc. It is

important to mention here that such Mendelian disorders may be

dominant or recessive. By pedigree analysis one can easily understand

whether the trait in question is dominant or recessive. Similarly, the trait

may also be linked to the sex chromosome as in case of haemophilia. It is

evident that this X-linked recessive trait shows transmission from carrier

female to male progeny. A representative pedigree is shown in Figure 5.14

for dominant and recessive traits. Discuss with your teacher and design

pedigrees for characters linked to both autosomes and sex chromosome.

(a) (b)

Figure 5.14 Representative pedigree analysis of (a) Autosomal dominant trait (for example:

Myotonic dystrophy) (b) Autosomal recessive trait (for example: Sickle-cell anaemia)

Colour Blidness : It is a sex-linked recessive disorder due to defect in

either red or green cone of eye resulting in failure to discriminate between

red and green colour. This defect is due to mutation in certain genes

present in the X chromosome. It occurs in about 8 per cent of males and

only about 0.4 per cent of females. This is because the genes that lead to

red-green colour blindness are on the X chromosome. Males have only

one X chromosome and females have two. The son of a woman who carries

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the gene has a 50 per cent chance of being colour blind. The mother is

not herself colour blind because the gene is recessive. That means that its

effect is suppressed by her matching dominant normal gene. A daughter

will not normally be colour blind, unless her mother is a carrier and her

father is colour blind.

Haemophilia : This sex linked recessive disease, which shows its

transmission from unaffected carrier female to some of the male progeny

has been widely studied. In this disease, a single protein that is a part of

the cascade of proteins involved in the clotting of blood is affected. Due to

this, in an affected individual a simple cut will result in non-stop bleeding.

The heterozygous female (carrier) for haemophilia may transmit the disease

to sons. The possibility of a female becoming a haemophilic is extremely

rare because mother of such a female has to be at least carrier and the

father should be haemophilic (unviable in the later stage of life). The family

pedigree of Queen Victoria shows a number of haemophilic descendents

as she was a carrier of the disease.

Sickle-cell anaemia : This is an autosome linked recessive trait that can

be transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the partners are

carrier for the gene (or heterozygous). The disease is controlled by a single

pair of allele, Hb

and Hb

. Out of the three possible genotypes only

homozygous individuals for Hb

(Hb

) show the diseased phenotype.

Heterozygous (Hb

) individuals appear apparently unaffected but they

are carrier of the disease as there is 50 per cent probability of transmission

of the mutant gene to the progeny, thus exhibiting sickle-cell trait

(Figure 5.15). The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid

Figure 5.15 Micrograph of the red blood cells and the amino acid composition of the relevant

portion of

-chain of haemoglobin: (a) From a normal individual; (b) From an individual

with sickle-cell anaemia

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(Glu) by Valine (Val) at the sixth position of the beta globin chain of the

haemoglobin molecule. The substitution of amino acid in the globin

protein results due to the single base substitution at the sixth codon of

the beta globin gene from GAG to GUG. The mutant haemoglobin molecule

undergoes polymerisation under low oxygen tension causing the change

in the shape of the RBC from biconcave disc to elongated sickle like

structure (Figure 5.15).

Phenylketonuria : This inborn error of metabolism is also inherited as

the autosomal recessive trait. The affected individual lacks an enzyme

that converts the amino acid phenylalanine into tyrosine. As a result of

this phenylalanine is accumulated and converted into phenylpyruvic acid

and other derivatives. Accumulation of these in brain results in mental

retardation. These are also excreted through urine because of its poor

absorption by kidney.

Thalassemia : This is also an autosome-linked recessive blood disease

transmitted from parents to the offspring when both the partners are

unaffected carrier for the gene (or heterozygous). The defect could be due

to either mutation or deletion which ultimately results in reduced rate of

synthesis of one of the globin chains (

α and β chains) that make up

haemoglobin. This causes the formation of abnormal haemoglobin

molecules resulting into anaemia which is characteristic of the disease.

Thalassemia can be classified according to which chain of the haemoglobin

molecule is affected. In α Thalassemia, production of α globin chain is

affected while in β Thalassemia, production of β globin chain is affected.

α Thalassemia is controlled by two closely linked genes HBA1 and HBA2

on chromosome 16 of each parent and it is observed due to mutation or

deletion of one or more of the four genes. The more genes affected, the

less alpha globin molecules produced. While β Thalassemia is controlled

by a single gene HBB on chromosome 11 of each parent and occurs due

to mutation of one or both the genes. Thalassemia differs from sickle-cell

anaemia in that the former is a quantitative problem of synthesising too

few globin molecules while the latter is a qualitative problem of

synthesising an incorrectly functioning globin.

5.8.3 Chromosomal Disorders

The chromosomal disorders on the other hand are caused due to absence

or excess or abnormal arrangement of one or more chromosomes.

Failure of segregation of chromatids during cell division cycle results

in the gain or loss of a chromosome(s), called aneuploidy. For example,

Down’s syndrome results in the gain of extra copy of chromosome 21.

Similarly, Turner’s syndrome results due to loss of an X chromosome in

human females. Failure of cytokinesis after telophase stage of cell division

results in an increase in a whole set of chromosomes in an organism and,

this phenomenon is known as polyploidy. This condition is often seen in

plants.

The total number of chromosomes in a normal human cell is 46

(23 pairs). Out of these 22 pairs are autosomes and one pair of

chromosomes are sex chromosome. Sometimes, though rarely, either an

additional copy of a chromosome may be included in an individual or an

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Flat back of head

Many “loops” on

finger tips

Palm crease

Broad flat face

Big and wrinkled

tongue

Congenital heart

disease

individual may lack one of any one pair of

chromosomes. These situations are known as trisomy

or monosomy of a chromosome, respectively. Such a

situation leads to very serious consequences in the

individual. Down’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome,

Klinefelter’s syndrome are common examples of

chromosomal disorders.

Down’s Syndrome : The cause of this genetic disorder

is the presence of an additional copy of the

chromosome number 21 (trisomy of 21). This disorder

was first described by Langdon Down (1866). The

affected individual is short statured with small round

head, furrowed tongue and partially open mouth

(Figure 5.16). Palm is broad with characteristic palm

crease. Physical, psychomotor and mental

development is retarded.

Klinefelter’s Syndrome : This genetic disorder is also

caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-

chromosome resulting into a karyotype of 47, XXY.

Such an individual has overall masculine development,

however, the feminine development (development

of breast, i.e., Gynaecomastia) is also expressed

(Figure 5.17 a). Such individuals are sterile.

Turner’s Syndrome : Such a disorder is caused due

to the absence of one of the X chromosomes, i.e., 45 with X0, Such females

are sterile as ovaries are rudimentary besides other features including

lack of other secondary sexual characters (Figure 5.17 b).

Figure 5.16 A representative figure showing an individual inflicted with Down’s

syndrome and the corresponding chromosomes of the individual

Tall stature

with feminised

character

Short stature and

underdeveloped

feminine character

(a)

(b)

Figure 5.17 Diagrammatic represe-

ntation of genetic disorders due to sex

chromosome composition in humans :

(a) Klinefelter Syndrome; (b) Turner’s

Syndrome

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SUMMARY

Genetics is a branch of biology which deals with principles of inheritance

and its practices. Progeny resembling the parents in morphological and

physiological features has attracted the attention of many biologists.

Mendel was the first to study this phenomenon systematically. While

studying the pattern of inheritance in pea plants of contrasting

characters, Mendel proposed the principles of inheritance, which are

today referred to as ‘Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance’. He proposed that

the ‘factors’ (later named as genes) regulating the characters are found

in pairs known as alleles. He observed that the expression of the

characters in the offspring follow a definite pattern in different–first

generations (F

), second (F

) and so on. Some characters are dominant

over others. The dominant characters are expressed when factors are

in heterozygous condition (Law of Dominance). The recessive characters

are only expressed in homozygous conditions. The characters never

blend in heterozygous condition. A recessive character that was not

expressed in heterozygous conditon may be expressed again when it

becomes homozygous. Hence, characters segregate while formation of

gametes (Law of Segregation).

Not all characters show true dominance. Some characters show

incomplete, and some show co-dominance. When Mendel studied the

inheritance of two characters together, it was found that the factors

independently assort and combine in all permutations and

combinations (Law of Independent Assortment). Different combinations

of gametes are theoretically represented in a square tabular form known

as ‘Punnett Square’. The factors (now known as gene) on chromosomes

regulating the characters are called the genotype and the physical

expression of the chraracters is called phenotype.

After knowing that the genes are located on the chromosomes, a

good correlation was drawn between Mendel’s laws : segregation and

assortment of chromosomes during meiosis. The Mendel’s laws were

extended in the form of ‘Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance’. Later, it

was found that Mendel’s law of independent assortment does not hold

true for the genes that were located on the same chromosomes. These

genes were called as ‘linked genes’. Closely located genes assorted

together, and distantly located genes, due to recombination, assorted

independently. Linkage maps, therefore, corresponded to arrangement

of genes on a chromosome.

Many genes were linked to sexes also, and called as sex-linked

genes. The two sexes (male and female) were found to have a set of

chromosomes which were common, and another set which was

different. The chromosomes which were different in two sexes were

named as sex chromosomes. The remaining set was named as

autosomes. In humans, a normal female has 22 pairs of autosomes

and a pair of sex chromosomes (XX). A male has 22 pairs of autosomes

and a pair of sex chromosome as XY. In chicken, sex chromosomes in

male are ZZ, and in females are ZW.

Mutation is defined as change in the genetic material. A point

mutation is a change of a single base pair in DNA. Sickle-cell anemia is

caused due to change of one base in the gene coding for beta-chain of

hemoglobin. Inheritable mutations can be studied by generating a

pedigree of a family. Some mutations involve changes in whole set of

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EXERCISES

1. Mention the advantages of selecting pea plant for experiment by Mendel.

2. Differentiate between the following –

(a) Dominance and Recessive

(b) Homozygous and Heterozygous

3. A diploid organism is heterozygous for 4 loci, how many types of gametes

can be produced?

4. Explain the Law of Dominance using a monohybrid cross.

5. Define and design a test-cross.

6. Using a Punnett Square, workout the distribution of phenotypic features

in the first filial generation after a cross between a homozygous female

and a heterozygous male for a single locus.

7. When a cross in made between tall plant with yellow seeds (TtYy) and

tall plant with green seed (Ttyy), what proportions of phenotype in the

offspring could be expected to be

(a) tall and green.

(b) dwarf and green.

8. Two heterozygous parents are crossed. If the two loci are linked what

would be the distribution of phenotypic features in F

generation for a

dibybrid cross?

9. Briefly mention the contribution of T.H. Morgan in genetics.

10. What is pedigree analysis? Suggest how such an analysis, can be useful.

11. How is sex determined in human beings?

12. A child has blood group O. If the father has blood group A and mother

blood group B, work out the genotypes of the parents and the possible

genotypes of the other offsprings.

13. Explain the following terms with example

(a) Co-dominance

(b) Incomplete dominance

14. What is point mutation? Give one example.

15. Who had proposed the chromosomal theory of the inheritance?

16. Mention any two autosomal genetic disorders with their symptoms.

chromosomes (polyploidy) or change in a subset of chromosome number

(aneuploidy). This helped in understanding the mutational basis of

genetic disorders. Down’s syndrome is due to trisomy of chromosome 21,

where there is an extra copy of chromosome 21 and consequently the

total number of chromosome becomes 47. In Turner’s syndrome, one X

chromosome is missing and the sex chromosome is as XO, and in

Klinefelter’s syndrome, the condition is XXY. These can be easily studied

by analysis of Karyotypes.

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