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As you know, the functions of the organs/organ systems in our body

must be coordinated to maintain homeostasis. Coordination is the

process through which two or more organs interact and complement the

functions of one another. For example, when we do physical exercises,

the energy demand is increased for maintaining an increased muscular

activity. The supply of oxygen is also increased. The increased supply of

oxygen necessitates an increase in the rate of respiration, heart beat and

increased blood flow via blood vessels. When physical exercise is stopped,

the activities of nerves, lungs, heart and kidney gradually return to their

normal conditions. Thus, the functions of muscles, lungs, heart, blood

vessels, kidney and other organs are coordinated while performing physical

exercises. In our body the neural system and the endocrine system jointly

coordinate and integrate all the activities of the organs so that they function

in a synchronised fashion.

The neural system provides an organised network of point-to-point

connections for a quick coordination. The endocrine system provides

chemical integration through hormones. In this chapter, you will learn

about the neural system of human, mechanisms of neural coordination

like transmission of nerve impulse, impulse conduction across a synapse

and the physiology of reflex action.

EURAL

ONTROL AND

OORDINATION

HAPTER

21.1 Neural System

21.2 Human Neural

System

21.3 Neuron as

Structural and

Functional Unit

of Neural

System

21.4 Central Neural

System

21.5 Reflex Action

and Reflex Arc

21.6 Sensory

Reception and

Processing

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21.1 NEURAL SYSTEM

The neural system of all animals is composed of highly specialised cells called

neurons which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli.

The neural organisation is very simple in lower invertebrates. For

example, in

Hydra

it is composed of a network of neurons. The neural

system is better organised in insects, where a brain is present along with

a number of ganglia and neural tissues. The vertebrates have a more

developed neural system.

21.2 HUMAN

NEURAL SYSTEM

The human neural system is divided into two parts :

(i) the central neural system

(CNS)

(ii) the peripheral neural system (PNS)

The CNS includes the brain and the spinal cord and is the site of

information processing and control. The PNS comprises of all the nerves

of the body associated with the CNS (brain and spinal cord). The nerve

fibres of the PNS are of two types :

(a) afferent fibres

(b) efferent fibres

The afferent nerve fibres transmit impulses from tissues/organs to

the CNS and the efferent fibres transmit regulatory impulses from the

CNS to the concerned peripheral tissues/organs.

The PNS is divided into two divisions called somatic neural system

and autonomic neural system. The somatic neural system relays

impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles while the autonomic neural

system transmits impulses from the CNS to the involuntary organs and

smooth muscles of the body. The autonomic neural system is further

classified into sympathetic neural system and parasympathetic neural

system.

Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system

that comprises the whole complex of nerves, fibres, ganglia, and plexuses

by which impulses travel from the central nervous system to the viscera

and from the viscera to the central nervous system.

21.3 NEURON AS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF

NEURAL SYSTEM

A neuron is a microscopic structure composed of three major parts, namely,

cell body, dendrites and axon (Figure 21.1). The cell body contains cytoplasm

with typical cell organelles and certain granular bodies called Nissl’s granules.

Short fibres which branch repeatedly and project out of the cell body also

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contain Nissl’s granules and are called dendrites. These

fibres transmit impulses towards the cell body. The

axon is a long fibre, the distal end of which is branched.

Each branch terminates as a bulb-like structure called

synaptic knob which possess synaptic vesicles

containing chemicals called neurotransmitters. The

axons transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body

to a synapse or to a neuro-muscular junction. Based

on the number of axon and dendrites, the neurons are

divided into three types, i.e., multipolar (with one axon

and two or more dendrites; found in the cerebral cortex),

bipolar (with one axon and one dendrite, found in the

retina of eye) and unipolar (cell body with one axon

only; found usually in the embryonic stage). There are

two types of axons, namely, myelinated and non-

myelinated. The myelinated nerve fibres are enveloped

with Schwann cells, which form a myelin sheath

around the axon. The gaps between two adjacent

myelin sheaths are called nodes of Ranvier.

Myelinated nerve fibres are found in spinal and cranial

nerves. Unmyelinated nerve fibre is enclosed by a

Schwann cell that does not form a myelin sheath

around the axon, and is commonly found in

autonomous and the somatic neural systems.

21.3.1 Generation and Conduction of

Nerve Impulse

Neurons are excitable cells because their membranes are in a polarised

state. Do you know why the membrane of a neuron is polarised? Different

types of ion channels are present on the neural membrane. These ion

channels are selectively permeable to different ions. When a neuron is not

conducting any impulse, i.e., resting, the axonal membrane is

comparatively more permeable to potassium ions (K

) and nearly

impermeable to sodium ions (Na

). Similarly, the membrane is

impermeable to negatively charged proteins present in the axoplasm.

Consequently, the axoplasm inside the axon contains high concentration

of K

and negatively charged proteins and low concentration of Na

. In

contrast, the fluid outside the axon contains a low concentration of K

, a

high concentration of Na

and thus form a concentration gradient. These

ionic gradients across the resting membrane are maintained by the active

transport of ions by the sodium-potassium pump which transports 3

outwards for 2 K

into the cell. As a result, the outer surface of the

axonal membrane possesses a positive charge while its inner surface

Figure 21.1 Structure of a neuron

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becomes negatively charged and therefore is polarised. The electrical

potential difference across the resting plasma membrane is called as the

resting potential.

You might be curious to know about the mechanisms of generation

of nerve impulse and its conduction along an axon. When a stimulus is

applied at a site (Figure 21.2 e.g., point A) on the polarised membrane,

the membrane at the site A becomes freely permeable to Na

. This leads

to a rapid influx of Na

followed by the reversal of the polarity at that site,

i.e., the outer surface of the membrane becomes negatively charged and

the inner side becomes positively charged. The polarity of the membrane

at the site A is thus reversed and hence depolarised. The electrical potential

difference across the plasma membrane at the site A is called the

action potential, which is in fact termed as a nerve impulse. At sites

immediately ahead, the axon (e.g., site B) membrane has a positive charge

on the outer surface and a negative charge on its inner surface. As a

result, a current flows on the inner surface from site A to site B. On the

outer surface current flows from site B to site A (Figure 21.2) to complete

the circuit of current flow. Hence, the polarity at the site is reversed, and

an action potential is generated at site B. Thus, the impulse (action

potential) generated at site A arrives at site B. The sequence is repeated

along the length of the axon and consequently the impulse is conducted.

The rise in the stimulus-induced permeability to Na

is extremely short-

lived. It is quickly followed by a rise in permeability to K

. Within a fraction

of a second, K

diffuses outside the membrane and restores the resting

potential of the membrane at the site of excitation and the fibre becomes

once more responsive to further stimulation.

- -

+ +

- -

+ +

- -

Figure 21.2 Diagrammatic representation of impulse conduction through an axon

(at points A and B)

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21.3.2 Transmission of Impulses

A nerve impulse is transmitted from one neuron to another through

junctions called synapses. A synapse is formed by the membranes of a

pre-synaptic neuron and a post-synaptic neuron, which may or may not

be separated by a gap called synaptic cleft. There are two types of

synapses, namely, electrical synapses and chemical synapses. At electrical

synapses, the membranes of pre- and post-synaptic neurons are in very

close proximity. Electrical current can flow directly from one neuron into

the other acr

oss these synapses. Transmission of an impulse across

electrical synapses is very similar to impulse conduction along a single

axon. Impulse transmission across an electrical synapse is always faster

than that across a chemical synapse. Electrical synapses are rare in our

system.

At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre- and post-synaptic

neurons are separated by a fluid-filled space called synaptic cleft

(Figure 21.3). Do you know how the pre-synaptic neuron transmits an

impulse (action potential) across the synaptic cleft to the post-synaptic

neuron? Chemicals called neurotransmitters are involved in the

transmission of impulses at these synapses. The axon terminals contain

vesicles filled with these neurotransmitters. When an impulse (action

potential) arrives at the axon terminal, it stimulates the movement of the

synaptic vesicles towards the membrane where they fuse with the plasma

Figure 21.3 Diagram showing axon terminal and synapse

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membrane and release their neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft. The

released neurotransmitters bind to their specific receptors, present on

the post-synaptic membrane. This binding opens ion channels allowing

the entry of ions which can generate a new potential in the post-synaptic

neuron. The new potential developed may be either excitatory or

inhibitory.

21.4 CENTRAL NEURAL SYSTEM

The brain is the central information processing organ of our body, and

acts as the ‘command and control system’. It controls the voluntary

movements, balance of the body, functioning of vital involuntary organs

(e.g., lungs, heart, kidneys, etc.), thermoregulation, hunger and thirst,

circadian (24-hour) rhythms of our body, activities of several endocrine

glands and human behaviour. It is also the site for processing of vision,

hearing, speech, memory, intelligence, emotions and thoughts.

The human brain is well protected by the skull. Inside the skull, the

brain is covered by cranial meninges consisting of an outer layer called

dura mater, a very thin middle layer called arachnoid and an inner layer

(which is in contact with the brain tissue) called pia mater. The brain can

be divided into three major parts: (i) forebrain, (ii) midbrain, and

(iii) hindbrain (Figure 21.4).

Figure 21.4 Diagram showing sagital section of the human brain

Forebrain

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21.4.1 Forebrain

The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus

(Figure 21.4). Cerebrum forms the major part of the human brain. A deep

cleft divides the cerebrum longitudinally into two halves, which are termed

as the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The hemispheres are

connected by a tract of nerve fibres called corpus callosum. The layer of

cells which covers the cerebral hemisphere is called cerebral cortex and is

thrown into prominent folds. The cerebral cortex is referred to as the grey

matter due to its greyish appearance. The neuron cell bodies are

concentrated here giving the colour. The cerebral cortex contains motor

areas, sensory areas and large regions that are neither clearly sensory

nor motor in function. These regions called as the association areas are

responsible for complex functions like intersensory associations, memory

and communication. Fibres of the tracts are covered with the myelin sheath,

which constitute the inner part of cerebral hemisphere. They give an

opaque white appearance to the layer and, hence, is called the white matter.

The cerebrum wraps around a structure called thalamus, which is a major

coordinating centre for sensory and motor signaling. Another very

important part of the brain called hypothalamus lies at the base of the

thalamus. The hypothalamus contains a number of centres which control

body temperature, urge for eating and drinking. It also contains several

groups of neurosecretory cells, which secrete hormones called

hypothalamic hormones. The inner parts of cerebral hemispheres and a

group of associated deep structures like amygdala, hippocampus, etc.,

form a complex structure called the limbic lobe or limbic system. Along

with the hypothalamus, it is involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour,

expression of emotional reactions (e.g., excitement, pleasure, rage and

fear), and motivation.

21.4.2 Midbrain

The midbrain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the

forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. A canal called the cerebral aqueduct

passess through the midbrain. The dorsal portion of the midbrain consists

mainly of four round swellings (lobes) called

corpora quadrigemina.

21.4.3 Hindbrain

The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla (also called

the medulla oblongata). Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect

different regions of the brain. Cerebellum has very convoluted surface in

order to provide the additional space for many more neurons. The medulla

of the brain is connected to the spinal cord. The medulla contains centres

which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions.

Three major regions make up the brain stem; mid brain, pons

and medulla oblongata. Brain stem forms the connections between

the brain and spinal cord.

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21.5 REFLEX A

CTION

AND

REFLEX ARC

You must have experienced a sudden withdrawal of a body part which

comes in contact with objects that are extremely hot, cold pointed or

animals that are scary or poisonous. The entire process of response to a

peripheral nervous stimulation, that occurs involuntarily, i.e., without

conscious effort or thought and requires the involvment of a part of the

central nervous system is called a reflex action. The reflex pathway

comprises at least one afferent neuron (receptor) and one efferent (effector

or excitor) neuron appropriately arranged in a series (Figure 21.5). The

afferent neuron receives signal from a sensory organ and transmits the

impulse via a dorsal nerve root into the CNS (at the level of spinal cord).

The efferent nueuron then carries signals from CNS to the effector. The

stimulus and response thus forms a reflex arc as shown below in the

knee jerk reflex. You should carefully study Figure 21.5 to understand

the mechanism of a knee jerk reflex.

21.6 SENSORY RECEPTION AND PROCESSING

Have you ever thought how do you feel the climatic changes in the

environment? How do you see an object and its colour? How do you

hear a sound? The sensory organs detect all types of changes in the

environment and send appropriate signals to the CNS, where all the inputs

are processed and analysed. Signals are then sent to different parts/

centres of the brain. This is how you can sense changes in the environment.

Figure 21.5 Diagrammatic presentation of reflex action (showing knee jerk reflex)

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Sense Organs

We smell things by our nose, taste by tongue, hear by ear and see objects

by eyes.

The nose contains mucus-coated receptors which are specialised for

receiving the sense of smell and called olfactory receptors. These are

made up of olfactory epithelium that consists of three kinds of cells. The

neurons of the olfactory epithelium extend from the outside environment

directly into a pair of broad bean-sized organs, called olfactory bulb,

which are extensions of the brain’s limbic system.

Both nose and tongue detect dissolved chemicals. The chemical senses

of gustation (taste) and olfactory (smell) are functionally similar and

interrelated. The tongue detects tastes through taste buds, containing

gustatory receptors

. With each taste of food or sip of drink, the brain

integrates the differential input from the taste buds and a complex flavour

is perceived.

In the following sections, you will be introduced to the structure and

functioning of the eye (sensory organ for vision) and the ear (sensory organ

for hearing).

21.6.1 Eye

Our paired eyes are located in sockets of the skull called orbits. A brief

account of structure and functions of the human eye is given in the

following sections.

21.6.1.1 Parts of an eye

The adult human eye ball is

nearly a spherical structure. The

wall of the eye ball is composed

of three layers (Figure 21.6). The

external layer is composed of a

dense connective tissue and is

called the sclera. The anterior

portion of this layer is called the

cornea. The middle layer,

choroid, contains many blood

vessels and looks bluish in

colour. The choroid layer is thin

over the posterior two-thirds of

the eye ball, but it becomes thick

in the anterior part to form the

ciliary body. The ciliary body

Figure 21.6 Diagram showing parts of an eye

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itself continues forward to form a pigmented and opaque structure called

the iris which is the visible coloured portion of the eye. The eye ball contains

a transparent crystalline lens which is held in place by ligaments attached

to the ciliary body. In front of the lens, the aperture surrounded by the

iris is called the pupil. The diameter of the pupil is regulated by the muscle

fibres of iris.

The inner layer is the retina and it contains three layers of neural cells –

from inside to outside – ganglion cells, bipolar cells and photoreceptor cells.

There are two types of photoreceptor cells, namely, rods and cones. These

cells contain the light-sensitive proteins called the photopigments. The

daylight (photopic) vision and colour vision are functions of cones and

the twilight (scotopic) vision is the function of the rods. The rods contain

a purplish-red protein called the rhodopsin or visual purple, which

contains a derivative of Vitamin A. In the human eye, there are three types

of cones which possess their own characteristic photopigments that

respond to red, green and blue lights. The sensations of different colours

are produced by various combinations of these cones and their

photopigments. When these cones are stimulated equally, a sensation of

white light is produced.

The optic nerves leave the eye and the retinal blood vessels enter it at

a point medial to and slightly above the posterior pole of the eye ball.

Photoreceptor cells are not present in that region and hence it is called

the blind spot. At the posterior pole of the eye lateral to the blind spot,

there is a yellowish pigmented spot called macula lutea with a central pit

called the fovea. The fovea is a thinned-out portion of the retina where

only the cones are densely packed. It is the point where the visual acuity

(resolution) is the greatest.

The space between the cornea and the lens is called the aqueous

chamber

and contains a thin watery fluid called aqueous humor. The

space between the lens and the retina is called the vitreous chamber

and is filled with a transparent gel called vitreous humor.

21.6.1.2 Mechanism of Vision

The light rays in visible wavelength focussed on the retina through the

cornea and lens generate potentials (impulses) in rods and cones. As

mentioned earlier, the photosensitive compounds (photopigments) in the

human eyes is composed of opsin (a protein) and retinal (an aldehyde of

vitamin A). Light induces dissociation of the retinal from opsin resulting

in changes in the structure of the opsin. This causes membrane

permeability changes. As a result, potential differences are generated in

the photoreceptor cells. This produces a signal that generates action

potentials in the ganglion cells through the bipolar cells. These action

potentials (impulses) are transmitted by the optic nerves to the visual

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Figure 21.7 Diagrammatic view of ear

cortex area of the brain, where the neural impulses are analysed and the

image formed on the retina is recognised based on earlier memory and

experience.

21.6.2 The Ear

The ears perform two sensory functions, hearing and maintenance of body

balance. Anatomically, the ear can be divided into three major sections

called the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear (Figure 21.7). The

outer ear consists of the

pinna and external

auditory meatus (canal).

The pinna collects the

vibrations in the air which

produce sound. The

external auditory meatus

leads inwards and extends

up to the tympanic

membrane (the ear drum).

There are very fine hairs and

wax-secreting glands in the

skin of the pinna and the

meatus. The tympanic

membrane is composed of

connective tissues covered

with skin outside and with

mucus membrane inside.

The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes

which are attached to one another in a chain-like fashion. The malleus is

attached to the tympanic membrane and the stapes is attached to the

oval window of the cochlea. The ear ossicles increase the efficiency of

transmission of sound waves to the inner ear. An Eustachian tube

connects the middle ear cavity with the pharynx. The Eustachian tube

helps in equalising the pressures on either sides of the ear drum.

The fluid-filled inner ear called labyrinth consists of two parts, the

bony and the membranous labyrinths. The bony labyrinth is a series of

channels. Inside these channels lies the membranous labyrinth, which is

surrounded by a fluid called perilymph. The membranous labyrinth is

filled with a fluid called endolymph. The coiled portion of the labyrinth is

called cochlea. The membranes constituting cochlea, the reissner’s and

basilar, divide the surounding perilymph filled bony labyrinth into an

upper scala vestibuli and a lower scala tympani (Figure 21.8). The space

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The organ of corti is a structure located on the basilar membrane

which contains hair cells that act as auditory receptors. The hair cells

are present in rows on the internal side of the organ of corti. The basal

end of the hair cell is in close contact with the afferent nerve fibres. A large

number of processes called stereo cilia are projected from the apical part

of each hair cell. Above the rows of the hair cells is a thin elastic membrane

called tectorial membrane.

The inner ear also contains a complex system called vestibular

apparatus, located above the cochlea. The vestibular apparatus is

composed of three

semi-circular canals and the otolith (macula is the

sensory part of saccule and utricle). Each semi-circular canal lies in a

different plane at right angles to each other. The membranous canals are

suspended in the perilymph of the bony canals. The base of canals is

Figure 21.8 Diagrammatic representation of the sectional view of cochlea

within cochlea called scala media is filled with endolymph. At the base of

the cochlea, the scala vestibuli ends at the oval window, while the scala

tympani terminates at the round window which opens to the middle ear.

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SUMMARY

The neural system coordinates and integrates functions as well as metabolic

and homeostatic activities of all the organs. Neurons, the functional units of

neural system are excitable cells due to a differential concentration gradient of

ions across the membrane. The electrical potential difference across the resting

neural membrane is called the ‘resting potential’. The nerve impulse is conducted

along the axon membrane in the form of a wave of depolarisation and

repolarisation. A synapse is formed by the membranes of a pre-synaptic neuron

and a post-synaptic neuron which may or may not be separated by a gap called

synaptic cleft. Chemicals involved in the transmission of impulses at chemical

synapses are called neurotransmitters.

Human neural system consists of two parts : (i) central neural system (CNS)

and (ii) the peripheral neural system. The CNS consists of the brain and spiral

cord. The brain can be divided into three major parts : (i) forebrain, (ii) midbrain

and (iii) hindbrain. The forebrain consists of cerebrum, thalamus and

hypothalamus. The cerebrum is longitudinally divided into two halves that are

connected by the corpus callosum. A very important part of the forebrain called

hypothalamus controls the body temperature, eating and drinking. Inner parts

swollen and is called ampulla, which contains a projecting ridge called

crista ampullaris which has hair cells. The saccule and utricle contain a

projecting ridge called macula. The crista and macula are the specific

receptors of the vestibular apparatus responsible for maintenance of

balance of the body and posture.

20.6.2.1 Mechanism of Hearing

How does ear convert sound waves into neural impulses, which are

sensed and processed by the brain enabling us to recognise a sound ?

The external ear receives sound waves and directs them to the ear drum.

The ear drum vibrates in response to the sound waves and these vibrations

are transmitted through the ear ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) to

the oval window. The vibrations are passed through the oval window on

to the fluid of the cochlea, where they generate waves in the lymphs. The

waves in the lymphs induce a ripple in the basilar membrane. These

movements of the basilar membrane bend the hair cells, pressing them

against the tectorial membrane. As a result, nerve impulses are generated

in the associated afferent neurons. These impulses are transmitted by

the afferent fibres via auditory nerves to the auditory cortex of the brain,

where the impulses are analysed and the sound is recognised.

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of cerebral hemispheres and a group of associated deep structures form a

complex structure called limbic system which is concerned with olfaction,

autonomic responses, regulation of sexual behaviour, expression of emotional

reactions, and motivation. The midbrain receives and integrates visual, tactile

and auditory inputs. The hindbrain comprises pons, cerebellum and medulla.

The cerebellum integrates information received from the semicircular canals of

the ear and the auditory system. The medulla contains centres, which control

respiration, cardiovascular reflexes, and gastric secretions. Pons consist of fibre

tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain. The entire process of

involuntary response to a peripheral nervous stimulation is called reflex action.

Information regarding changes in the environment is received by the CNS

through the sensory organs which are processed and analysed. Signals are then

sent for necessary adjustments. The wall of the human eye ball is composed of

three layers. The external layer is composed of cornea and sclera. Inside sclera is

the middle layer, which is called the choroid. Retina, the innermost layer, contains

two types of photoreceptor cells, namely rods and cones. The daylight (photopic)

vision and colour vision are functions of cones and twilight (scotopic) vision is the

function of the rods. The light enters through cornea, the lens and the images of

objects are formed on the retina.

The ear can be divided into the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The

middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes. The fluid

filled inner ear is called the labyrinth, and the coiled portion of the labyrinth is

called cochlea. The organ of corti is a structure which contains hair cells that act

as auditory receptors and is located on the basilar membrane. The vibrations

produced in the ear drum are transmitted through the ear ossicles and oval window

to the fluid-filled inner ear. Nerve impulses are generated and transmitted by the

afferent fibres to the auditory cortex of the brain. The inner ear also contains a

complex system located above the cochlea called vestibular apparatus. It is

influenced by gravity and movements, and helps us in maintaining balance of the

body and posture.

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EXERCISES

1. Briefly describe the structure of the following:

(a) Brain (b) Eye (c) Ear

2. Compare the following:

(a) Central neural system (CNS) and Peripheral neural system (PNS)

(b) Resting potential and action potential

3. Explain the following processes:

(a) Polarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre

(b) Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre

(d) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse

4. Draw labelled diagrams of the following:

(a) Neuron (b) Brain (c) Eye (d) Ear

5. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Neural coordination (b) Forebrain (c) Midbrain

(d) Hindbrain (e) Retina (f) Ear ossicles

(g) Cochlea (h) Organ of Corti (i) Synapse

6. Give a brief account of:

(a) Mechanism of synaptic transmission

(b) Mechanism of vision

7. Answer briefly:

(a) How do you perceive the colour of an object?

(b) Which part of our body helps us in maintaining the body balance?

8. Explain the following:

(a) Role of Na

in the generation of action potential.

(b) Mechanism of generation of light-induced impulse in the retina.

inner ear.

9. Differentiate between:

(a) Myelinated and non-myelinated axons

(b) Dendrites and axons

(d) Thalamus and Hypothalamus

(e) Cerebrum and Cerebellum

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10. Answer the following:

(a) Which part of the ear determines the pitch of a sound?

(b) Which part of the human brain is the most developed?

11. The region of the vertebrate eye, where the optic nerve passes out of the retina, is

called the

(a) fovea

(b) iris

(d) optic chaisma

12. Distinguish between:

(a) afferent neurons and efferent neurons

(b) impulse conduction in a myelinated nerve fibre and unmyelinated nerve fibre

(d) blind spot and yellow spot

(f) cranial nerves and spinal nerves.

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