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You have already studied the organisation of a flowering plant in Chapter

5. Have you ever thought about where and how the structures like roots,

stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds arise and that too in an orderly

sequence? You are, by now, aware of the terms seed, seedling, plantlet,

mature plant. You have also seen that trees continue to increase in height

or girth over a period of time. However, the leaves, flowers and fruits of the

same tree not only have limited dimensions but also appear and fall

periodically and some time repeatedly. Why does vegetative phase precede

flowering in a plant? All plant organs are made up of a variety of tissues; is

there any relationship between the structure of a cell, a tissue, an organ

and the function they perform? Can the structure and the function of these

be altered? All cells of a plant are descendents of the zygote. The question

is, then, why and how do they have different structural and functional

attributes? Development is the sum of two processes: growth and

differentiation. To begin with, it is essential and sufficient to know that the

development of a mature plant from a zygote (fertilised egg) follow a precise

and highly ordered succession of events. During this process a complex

body organisation is formed that produces roots, leaves, branches, flowers,

fruits, and seeds, and eventually they die (Figure 15.1). The first step in the

process of plant growth is seed germination. The seed germinates when

favourable conditions for growth exist in the environment. In absence of

such favourable conditions the seeds do not germinate and goes into a

period of suspended growth or rest. Once favourable conditions return,

the seeds resume metabolic activities and growth takes place.

In this chapter, you shall also study some of the factors which

govern and control these developmental processes. These factors are both

intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) to the plant.

LANT

ROWTH AND

EVELOPMENT

HAPTER

15.1 Growth

15.2 Differentiation,

Dedifferentiation

and

Redifferentiation

15.3 Development

15.4 Plant Growth

Regulators

15.5 Photoperiodism

15.6 Vernalisation

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15.1 GROWTH

Growth is regarded as one of the most fundamental and conspicuous

characteristics of a living being. What is growth? Growth can be defined

as an irreversible permanent increase in size of an organ or its parts or

even of an individual cell. Generally, growth is accompanied by metabolic

processes (both anabolic and catabolic), that occur at the expense of

energy. Therefore, for example, expansion of a leaf is growth. How would

you describe the swelling of piece of wood when placed in water?

15.1.1 Plant Growth Generally is Indeterminate

Plant growth is unique because plants retain the capacity for unlimited

growth throughout their life. This ability of the plants is due to the presence

of meristems at certain locations in their body. The cells of such meristems

have the capacity to divide and self-perpetuate. The product, however,

soon loses the capacity to divide and such cells make up the plant body.

This form of growth wherein new cells are always being added to the

plant body by the activity of the meristem is called the open form of growth.

What would happen if the meristem ceases to divide? Does this ever

happen?

In Chapter 6, you have studied about the root apical meristem and

the shoot apical meristem. You know that they are responsible for the

Seed coat

Epicotyl

hook

Cotyledons

Cotyledon

Soil line

Epicotyl

Hypocotyl

Figure 15.1 Germination and seedling development in bean

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primary growth of the plants and principally

contribute to the elongation of the plants along

their axis. You also know that in dicotyledonous

plants and gymnosperms, the lateral meristems,

vascular cambium and cork-cambium appear

later in life. These are the meristems that cause

the increase in the girth of the organs in which

they are active. This is known as secondary

growth of the plant (see Figure 15.2).

15.1.2 Growth is Measurable

Growth, at a cellular level, is principally a

consequence of increase in the amount of

protoplasm. Since increase in protoplasm is

difficult to measure directly, one generally

measures some quantity which is more or less

proportional to it. Growth is, therefore,

measured by a variety of parameters some of

which are: increase in fresh weight, dry weight,

length, area, volume and cell number. You may

find it amazing to know that one single maize

root apical mersitem can give rise to more than

17,500 new cells per hour, whereas cells in a

watermelon may increase in size by upto

3,50,000 times. In the former, growth is

expressed as increase in cell number; the latter

expresses growth as increase in size of the cell.

While the growth of a pollen tube is measured

in terms of its length, an increase in surface area

denotes the growth in a dorsiventral leaf.

15.1.3 Phases of Growth

The period of growth is generally divided into

three phases, namely, meristematic, elongation

and maturation (Figure 15.3). Let us

understand this by looking at the root tips. The

constantly dividing cells, both at the root apex

and the shoot apex, represent the meristematic

phase of growth. The cells in this region are rich

in protoplasm, possess large conspicuous

nuclei. Their cell walls are primary in nature,

thin and cellulosic with abundant

plasmodesmatal connections. The cells

proximal (just next, away from the tip) to the

Shoot apical

meristem

Vascular

cambium

Vascular

cambium

Root apical

meristem

Shoot

Root

Figure 15.2 Diagrammatic representation of

locations of root apical meristem,

shoot aplical meristem and

vascular cambium. Arrows exhibit

the direction of growth of cells and

organ

Figure 15.3 Detection of zones of elongation by

the parallel line technique. Zones

A, B, C, D immediately behind the

apex have elongated most.

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meristematic zone represent the phase of elongation. Increased

vacuolation, cell enlargement and new cell wall deposition are the

characteristics of the cells in this phase. Further away from the apex, i.e.,

more proximal to the phase of elongation, lies the portion of axis which is

undergoing the phase of maturation. The cells of this zone, attain their

maximal size in terms of wall thickening and protoplasmic modifications.

Most of the tissues and cell types you have studied in Chapter 6 represent

this phase.

15.1.4 Growth Rates

The increased growth per unit time is termed as growth rate. Thus, rate

of growth can be expressed mathematically. An organism, or a part of the

organism can produce more cells in a variety of ways.

Figure15.4 Diagrammatic representation of : (a) Arithmetic (b) Geometric growth and

phases

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The growth rate shows an increase that may be

arithmetic or geometrical (Figure 15.4).

In arithmetic growth, following mitotic cell

division, only one daughter cell continues to divide

while the other differentiates and matures. The

simplest expression of arithmetic growth is

exemplified by a root elongating at a constant rate.

Look at Figure 15.5. On plotting the length of the

organ against time, a linear curve is obtained.

Mathematically, it is expressed as

= L

+ rt

= length at time ‘t’

= length at time ‘zero’

r = growth rate / elongation per unit time.

Let us now see what happens in geometrical

growth. In most systems, the initial growth is slow

(lag phase), and it increases rapidly thereafter – at

an exponential rate (log or exponential phase). Here,

both the progeny cells following mitotic cell division

retain the ability to divide and continue to do so.

However, with limited nutrient supply, the growth

slows down leading to a stationary phase. If we plot

the parameter of growth against time, we get a typical

sigmoid or S-curve (Figure 15.6). A sigmoid curve

is a characteristic of living organism growing in a

natural environment. It is typical for all cells, tissues

and organs of a plant. Can you think of more similar

examples? What kind of a curve can you expect in

a tree showing seasonal activities?

The exponential growth can be expressed as

= W

= final size (weight, height, number etc.)

= initial size at the beginning of the period

r = growth rate

t = time of growth

e = base of natural logarithms

Here, r is the relative growth rate and is also the

measure of the ability of the plant to produce new

plant material, referred to as efficiency index. Hence,

the final size of W

depends on the initial size, W

Figure 15.5 Constant linear growth, a plot

of length L against time t

Figure 15.6 An idealised sigmoid growth

curve typical of cells in culture,

and many higher plants and

plant organs

Size/weight of the or

gan

Exponential phase

Lag phase

Time

Stationary phase

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Quantitative comparisons between the growth of living system can

also be made in two ways : (i) measurement and the comparison of total

growth per unit time is called the absolute growth rate. (ii) The growth of

the given system per unit time expressed on a common basis, e.g., per

unit initial parameter is called the relative growth rate. In Figure 15.7

two leaves, A and B, are drawn that are of different sizes but shows

absolute increase in area in the given time to give leaves, A

and B

. However,

one of them shows much higher relative growth rate. Which one and why?

15.1.5 Conditions for Growth

Why do you not try to write down what you think are necessary conditions

for growth? This list may have water, oxygen and nutrients as very essential

elements for growth. The plant cells grow in size by cell enlargement which

in turn requires water. Turgidity of cells helps in extension growth. Thus,

plant growth and further development is intimately linked to the water

status of the plant. Water also provides the medium for enzymatic activities

needed for growth. Oxygen helps in releasing metabolic energy essential

for growth activities. Nutrients (macro and micro essential elements) are

required by plants for the synthesis of protoplasm and act as source of

energy.

In addition, every plant organism has an optimum temperature range

best suited for its growth. Any deviation from this range could be

detrimental to its survival. Environmental signals such as light and gravity

also affect certain phases/stages of growth.

Figure15.7 Diagrammatic comparison of absolute and relative growth rates. Both

leaves A and B have increased their area by 5 cm

in a given time to

produce A

, B

leaves.

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15.2 DIFFERENTIATION, DEDIFFERENTIATION AND

REDIFFERENTIATION

The cells derived from root apical and shoot-apical meristems and

cambium differentiate and mature to perform specific functions. This act

leading to maturation is termed as differentiation. During differentiation,

cells undergo few to major structural changes both in their cell walls and

protoplasm. For example, to form a tracheary element, the cells would

lose their protoplasm. They also develop a very strong, elastic,

lignocellulosic secondary cell walls, to carry water to long distances even

under extreme tension. Try to corr

elate the various anatomical features

you encounter in plants to the functions they perform.

Plants show another interesting phenomenon. The living differentiated

cells, that by now have lost the capacity to divide can regain the capacity

of division under certain conditions. This phenomenon is termed as

dedifferentiation. For example, formation of meristems – interfascicular

cambium and cork cambium from fully differentiated parenchyma cells.

While doing so, such meristems/tissues are able to divide and produce

cells that once again lose the capacity to divide but mature to perform

specific functions, i.e., get redifferentiated. List some of the tissues in a

woody dicotyledenous plant that are the products of redifferentiation.

How would you describe a tumour? What would you call the parenchyma

cells that are made to divide under controlled laboratory conditions during

plant tissue culture?

Recall, in Section 15.1.1, we have mentioned that the growth in plants

is open, i.e., it can be indeterminate or determinate. Now, we may say that

even differentiation in plants is open, because cells/tissues arising out of

the same meristem have different structures at maturity. The final

structure at maturity of a cell/tissue is also determined by the location of

the cell within. For example, cells positioned away from root apical

meristems differentiate as root-cap cells, while those pushed to the

periphery mature as epidermis. Can you add a few more examples of

open differentiation correlating the position of a cell to its position in an

organ?

15.3 DEVELOPMENT

Development is a term that includes all changes that an organism goes

through during its life cycle from germination of the seed to senescence.

Diagrammatic representation of the sequence of processes which

constitute the development of a cell of a higher plant is given in Figure

15.8. It is also applicable to tissues/organs.

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Plants follow different pathways in response to environment or phases

of life to form different kinds of structures. This ability is called plasticity,

e.g., heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur. In such plants, the

leaves of the juvenile plant are different in shape from those in mature

plants. On the other hand, difference in shapes of leaves produced in air

and those produced in water in buttercup also represent the

heterophyllous development due to environment (Figure 15.9). This

phenomenon of heterophylly is an example of plasticity.

Figure 15.8 Sequence of the developmental process in a plant cell

Cell Division

Death

Plasmatic growth

Differentiation

Expansion

(Elongation)

Maturation

MERISTEMATIC

CELL

SENESCENCE

MATURE

CELL

Figure 15.9 Heterophylly in (a) larkspur and (b) buttercup

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Thus, growth, differentiation and development are very closely related

events in the life of a plant. Broadly, development is considered as the

sum of growth and differentiation. Development in plants (i.e., both growth

and differentiation) is under the control of intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

The former includes both intracellular (genetic) or intercellular factors

(chemicals such as plant growth regulators) while the latter includes light,

temperature, water, oxygen, nutrition, etc.

15.4 PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS

15.4.1 Characteristics

The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple molecules of diverse

chemical composition. They could be indole compounds (indole-3-acetic

acid, IAA); adenine derivatives (N

-furfurylamino purine, kinetin),

derivatives of carotenoids (abscisic acid, ABA); terpenes (gibberellic acid,

) or gases (ethylene, C

). Plant growth regulators are variously

described as plant growth substances, plant hormones or phytohormones

in literature.

The PGRs can be broadly divided into two groups based on their

functions in a living plant body. One group of PGRs are involved in growth

promoting activities, such as cell division, cell enlargement, pattern

formation, tropic growth, flowering, fruiting and seed formation. These

are also called plant growth promoters, e.g., auxins, gibberellins and

cytokinins. The PGRs of the other group play an important role in plant

responses to wounds and stresses of biotic and abiotic origin. They are

also involved in various growth inhibiting activities such as dormancy

and abscission. The PGR abscisic acid belongs to this group. The gaseous

PGR, ethylene, could fit either of the groups, but it is largely an inhibitor

of growth activities.

15.4.2 The Discovery of Plant Growth Regulators

Interestingly, the discovery of each of the five

major groups of PGRs have been accidental.

All this started with the observation of Charles

Darwin and his son Francis Darwin when they

observed that the coleoptiles of canary grass

responded to unilateral illumination by

growing towards the light source

(phototropism). After a series of experiments,

it was concluded that the tip of coleoptile was

the site of transmittable influence that caused

the bending of the entire coleoptile (Figure

15.10). Auxin was isolated by F.W. Went from

tips of coleoptiles of oat seedlings.

Figure 15.10 Experiment used to demonstrate

that tip of the coleoptile is the

source of auxin. Arrows indicate

direction of light

a b c d

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The ‘bakanae’ (foolish seedling) disease of rice seedlings, was caused

by a fungal pathogen Gibberella fujikuroi. E. Kurosawa (1926) reported

the appearance of symptoms of the disease in rice seedlings when they

were treated with sterile filtrates of the fungus. The active substances

were later identified as gibberellic acid.

F. Skoog and his co-workers observed that from the internodal

segments of tobacco stems the callus (a mass of undifferentiated cells)

proliferated only if, in addition to auxins the nutrients medium was

supplemented with one of the following: extracts of vascular tissues, yeast

extract, coconut milk or DNA. Miller et al. (1955), later identified and

crystallised the cytokinesis promoting active substance that they

termed kinetin.

During mid-1960s, three independent researches reported the

purification and chemical characterisation of three different kinds of

inhibitors: inhibitor-B, abscission II and dormin. Later all the three were

proved to be chemically identical. It was named abscisic acid (ABA).

H.H. Cousins (1910) confirmed the release of a volatile substance from

ripened oranges that hastened the ripening of stored unripened bananas.

Later this volatile substance was identified as ethylene, a gaseous PGR.

Let us study some of the physiological effects of these five categories

of PGRs in the next section.

15.4.3 Physiological Effects of Plant Growth Regulators

15.4.3.1 Auxins

Auxins (from Greek ‘auxein’ : to grow) was first isolated from human urine.

The term ‘auxin’ is applied to the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and to other

natural and synthetic compounds having certain growth regulating

properties. They are generally produced by the growing apices of the stems

and roots, from where they migrate to the regions of their action. Auxins

like IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) have been isolated from plants.

NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic)

are synthetic auxins. All these auxins have been used extensively in

agricultural and horticultural practices.

They help to initiate rooting in stem cuttings, an application widely

used for plant propagation. Auxins promote flowering e.g. in pineapples.

They help to prevent fruit and leaf drop at early stages but promote the

abscission of older mature leaves and fruits.

In most higher plants, the growing apical bud inhibits the growth of

the lateral (axillary) buds, a phenomenon called apical dominance.

Removal of shoot tips (decapitation) usually results in the growth of lateral

buds (Figure 15.11). It is widely applied in tea plantations, hedge-making.

Can you explain why?

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Auxins also induce parthenocarpy, e.g., in

tomatoes. They are widely used as herbicides.

2, 4-D, widely used to kill dicotyledonous

weeds, does not affect mature

monocotyledonous plants. It is used to prepare

weed-free lawns by gardeners. Auxin also

controls xylem differentiation and helps in cell

division.

15.4.3.2 Gibberellins

Gibberellins are another kind of promotory

PGR. There are more than 100 gibberellins

reported from widely different organisms such

as fungi and higher plants. They are denoted

as GA

, GA

and so on. However,

Gibberellic acid (GA

) was one of the first

gibberellins to be discovered and remains the

most intensively studied form. All GAs are

acidic. They produce a wide range of

physiological responses in the plants. Their ability to cause an increase

in length of axis is used to increase the length of grapes stalks. Gibberellins,

cause fruits like apple to elongate and improve its shape. They also delay

senescence. Thus, the fruits can be left on the tree longer so as to extend

the market period. GA

is used to speed up the malting process in brewing

industry.

Sugarcane stores carbohydrate as sugar in their stems. Spraying

sugarcane crop with gibberellins increases the length of the stem, thus

increasing the yield by as much as 20 tonnes per acre.

Spraying juvenile conifers with GAs hastens the maturity period, thus

leading to early seed production. Gibberellins also promotes bolting

(internode elongation just prior to flowering) in beet, cabbages and many

plants with rosette habit.

15.4.3.3 Cytokinins

Cytokinins have specific effects on cytokinesis, and were discovered as

kinetin (a modified form of adenine, a purine) from the autoclaved herring

sperm DNA. Kinetin does not occur naturally in plants. Search for natural

substances with cytokinin-like activities led to the isolation of zeatin from

corn-kernels and coconut milk. Since the discovery of zeatin, several

naturally occurring cytokinins, and some synthetic compounds with cell

division promoting activity, have been identified. Natural cytokinins are

synthesised in regions where rapid cell division occurs, for example, root

apices, developing shoot buds, young fruits etc. It helps to produce new

Figure 15.11 Apical dominance in plants :

(a) A plant with apical bud intact

(b) A plant with apical bud removed

Note the growth of lateral buds into

branches after decapitation.

(a) (b)

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leaves, chloroplasts in leaves, lateral shoot growth and adventitious shoot

formation. Cytokinins help overcome the apical dominance. They promote

nutrient mobilisation which helps in the delay of leaf senescence.

15.4.3.4 Ethylene

Ethylene is a simple gaseous PGR. It is synthesised in large amounts

by tissues undergoing senescence and ripening fruits. Influences of

ethylene on plants include horizontal growth of seedlings, swelling of

the axis and apical hook formation in dicot seedlings. Ethylene promotes

senescence and abscission of plant organs especially of leaves and

flowers. Ethylene is highly effective in fruit ripening. It enhances the

respiration rate during ripening of the fruits. This rise in rate of

respiration is called respiratory climactic.

Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy, initiates germination in

peanut seeds, sprouting of potato tubers. Ethylene promotes rapid

internode/petiole elongation in deep water rice plants. It helps leaves/

upper parts of the shoot to remain above water. Ethylene also promotes

root growth and root hair formation, thus helping the plants to increase

their absorption surface.

Ethylene is used to initiate flowering and for synchronising fruit-set

in pineapples. It also induces flowering in mango. Since ethylene regulates

so many physiological processes, it is one of the most widely used PGR in

agriculture. The most widely used compound as source of ethylene is

ethephon. Ethephon in an aqueous solution is readily absorbed and

transported within the plant and releases ethylene slowly. Ethephon

hastens fruit ripening in tomatoes and apples and accelerates abscission

in flowers and fruits (thinning of cotton, cherry, walnut). It promotes female

flowers in cucumbers thereby increasing the yield.

15.4.3.5 Abscisic acid

As mentioned earlier, abscisic acid (ABA) was discovered for its role in

regulating abscission and dormancy. But like other PGRs, it also has

other wide ranging effects on plant growth and development. It acts as a

general plant growth inhibitor and an inhibitor of plant metabolism.

ABA inhibits seed germination. ABA stimulates the closure of stomata

and increases the tolerance of plants to various kinds of stresses.

Therefore, it is also called the stress hormone. ABA plays an important

role in seed development, maturation and dormancy. By inducing

dormancy, ABA helps seeds to withstand desiccation and other factors

unfavourable for growth. In most situations, ABA acts as an antagonist

to GAs.

We may summarise that for any and every phase of growth,

differentiation and development of plants, one or the other PGR has some

role to play. Such roles could be complimentary or antagonistic. These

could be individualistic or synergistic.

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Similarly, there are a number of events in the life of a plant where

more than one PGR interact to affect that event, e.g., dormancy in seeds/

buds, abscission, senescence, apical dominance, etc.

Remember, the role of PGR is of only one kind of intrinsic control.

Along with genomic control and extrinsic factors, they play an important

role in plant growth and development. Many of the extrinsic factors such

as temperature and light, control plant growth and development via PGR.

Some of such events could be: vernalisation, flowering, dormancy, seed

germination, plant movements, etc.

We shall discuss briefly the role of light and temperature (both of them,

the extrinsic factors) on initiation of flowering.

15.5 PHOTOPERIODISM

It has been observed that some plants require a periodic exposure to

light to induce flowering. It is also seen that such plants are able to

measure the duration of exposure to light. For example, some plants

require the exposure to light for a period exceeding a well defined critical

duration, while others must be exposed to light for a period less than this

critical duration before the flowering is initiated in them. The former group

of plants are called long day plants while the latter ones are termed

short day plants. The critical duration is different for different plants.

Ther

e are many plants, however, where there is no such correlation

between exposure to light duration and induction of flowering response;

such plants are called day-neutral plants (Figure 15.12). It is now also

Figure 15.12 Photoperiodism : Long day, short day and day neutral plants

Long day plant Short day plant

Day neutral plant

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known that not only the duration of light period but that the duration of

dark period is also of equal importance. Hence, it can be said that flowering

in certain plants depends not only on a combination of light and dark

exposures but also their relative durations. This response of plants to

periods of day/night is termed photoperiodism. It is also interesting to

note that while shoot apices modify themselves into flowering apices prior

to flowering, they (i.e., shoot apices of plants) by themselves cannot percieve

photoperiods. The site of perception of light/dark duration are the leaves.

It has been hypothesised that there is a hormonal substance(s) that is

responsible for flowering. This hormonal substance migrates from leaves

to shoot apices for inducing flowering only when the plants are exposed

to the necessary inductive photoperiod.

15.6 VERNALISATION

There are plants for which flowering is either quantitatively or qualitatively

dependent on exposure to low temperature. This phenomenon is termed

vernalisation. It prevents precocious reproductive development late in

the growing season, and enables the plant to have sufficient time to reach

maturity. Vernalisation refers specially to the promotion of flowering by a

period of low temperature. Some important food plants, wheat, barley,

rye have two kinds of varieties: winter and spring varieties. The ‘spring’

variety are normally planted in the spring and come to flower and produce

grain before the end of the growing season. Winter varieties, however, if

planted in spring would normally fail to flower or produce mature grain

within a span of a flowering season. Hence, they are planted in autumn.

They germinate, and over winter come out as small seedlings, resume

growth in the spring, and ar

e harvested usually around mid-summer.

Another example of vernalisation is seen in biennial plants. Biennials

are monocarpic plants that normally flower and die in the second season.

Sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots are some of the common biennials.

Subjecting the growing of a biennial plant to a cold treatment stimulates

a subsequent photoperiodic flowering response.

15.7 SEED DORMANCY

There are certain seeds which fail to germinate even when external

conditions are favourable. Such seeds are understood to be undergoing

a period of dormancy which is controlled not by external environment

but are under endogenous control or conditions within the seed itself.

Impermeable and hard seed coat; presence of chemical inhibitors such

as abscissic acids, phenolic acids, para-ascorbic acid; and immature

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embryos are some of the reasons which causes seed dormancy. This dormancy

however can be overcome through natural means and various other man-made

measures. For example, the seed coat barrier in some seeds can be broken by

mechanical abrasions using knives, sandpaper, etc. or vigorous shaking. In nature,

these abrasions are caused by microbial action, and passage through digestive

tract of animals. Effect of inhibitory substances can be removed by subjecting the

seeds to chilling conditions or by application of certain chemicals like gibberellic

acid and nitrates. Changing the environmental conditions, such as light and

temperature are other methods to overcome seed dormancy.

SUMMARY

Growth is one of the most conspicuous events in any living organism. It is an

irreversible increase expressed in parameters such as size, area, length, height,

volume, cell number etc. It conspicuously involves increased protoplasmic material.

In plants, meristems are the sites of growth. Root and shoot apical meristems

sometimes alongwith intercalary meristem, contribute to the elongation growth of

plant axes. Growth is indeterminate in higher plants. Following cell division in root

and shoot apical meristem cells, the growth could be arithmetic or geometrical.

Growth may not be and generally is not sustained at a high rate throughout the life

of cell/tissue/organ/organism. One can define three principle phases of growth –

the lag, the log and the senescent phase. When a cell loses the capacity to divide, it

leads to differentiation. Differentiation results in development of structures that is

commensurate with the function the cells finally has to perform. General principles

for differentiation for cell, tissues and organs are similar. A differentiated cell may

dedifferentiate and then redifferentiate. Since differentiation in plants is open, the

development could also be flexible, i.e., the development is the sum of growth and

differentiation. Plant exhibit plasticity in development.

Plant growth and development are under the control of both intrinsic and

extrinsic factors. Intercellular intrinsic factors are the chemical substances, called

plant growth regulators (PGR). There are diverse groups of PGRs in plants, principally

belonging to five groups: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethylene.

These PGRs are synthesised in various parts of the plant; they control different

differentiation and developmental events. Any PGR has diverse physiological effects

on plants. Diverse PGRs also manifest similar effects. PGRs may act synergistically

or antagonistically. Plant growth and development is also affected by light,

temperature, nutrition, oxygen status, gravity and such external factors.

Flowering in some plants is induced only when exposed to certain duration of

photoperiod. Depending on the nature of photoperiod requirements, the plants are

called short day plants, long day plants and day-neutral plants. Certain plants

also need to be exposed to low temperature so as to hasten flowering later in life.

This treatement is known as vernalisation.

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254 BIOLOGY

EXERCISES

1. Define growth, differentiation, development, dedifferentiation, redifferentiation,

determinate growth, meristem and growth rate.

2. Why is not any one parameter good enough to demonstrate growth throughout

the life of a flowering plant?

3. Describe briefly:

(a) Arithmetic growth

(b) Geometric growth

(d) Absolute and relative growth rates

4. List five main groups of natural plant growth regulators. Write a note on

discovery, physiological functions and agricultural/horticultural applications

of any one of them.

5. What do you understand by photoperiodism and vernalisation? Describe their

significance.

6. Why is abscisic acid also known as stress hormone?

7. ‘Both growth and differentiation in higher plants are open’. Comment.

8. ‘Both a short day plant and a long day plant can produce can flower

simultaneously in a given place’. Explain.

9. Which one of the plant growth regulators would you use if you are asked to:

(a) induce rooting in a twig

(b) quickly ripen a fruit

(d) induce growth in axillary buds

(e) ‘bolt’ a rosette plant

(f) induce immediate stomatal closure in leaves.

10. Would a defoliated plant respond to photoperiodic cycle? Why?

11. What would be expected to happen if:

(a) GA

is applied to rice seedlings

(b) dividing cells stop differentiating

(d) you forget to add cytokinin to the culture medium.

2020-21