UNIT 3
Biology is the study of living organisms. The detailed description of
their form and appearance only brought out their diversity. It is the
cell theory that emphasised the unity underlying this diversity of forms,
i.e., the cellular organisation of all life forms. A description of cell
structure and cell growth by division is given in the chapters comprising
this unit. Cell theory also created a sense of mystery around living
phenomena, i.e., physiological and behavioural processes. This mystery
was the requirement of integrity of cellular organisation for living
phenomena to be demonstrated or observed. In studying and
understanding the physiological and behavioural processes, one can
take a physico-chemical approach and use cell-free systems to
investigate. This approach enables us to describe the various processes
in molecular terms. The approach is established by analysis of living
tissues for elements and compounds. It will tell us what types of organic
compounds are present in living organisms. In the next stage, one can
ask the question: What are these compounds doing inside a cell? And,
in what way they carry out gross physiological processes like digestion,
excretion, memory, defense, recognition, etc. In other words we answer
the question, what is the molecular basis of all physiological processes?
It can also explain the abnormal processes that occur during any
diseased condition. This physico-chemical approach to study and
understand living organisms is called ‘Reductionist Biology’. The
concepts and techniques of physics and chemistry are applied to
understand biology. In Chapter 9 of this unit, a brief description of
biomolecules is provided.
CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Chapter 8
Cell: The Unit of Life
Chapter 9
Biomolecules
Chapter 10
Cell Cycle and
Cell Division
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G.N. RAMACHANDRAN, an outstanding figure in the field of protein
structure, was the founder of the ‘Madras school’ of
conformational analysis of biopolymers. His discovery of the triple
helical structure of collagen published in Nature in 1954 and his
analysis of the allowed conformations of proteins through the
use of the ‘Ramachandran plot’ rank among the most outstanding
contributions in structural biology. He was born on October 8,
1922, in a small town, not far from Cochin on the southwestern
coast of India. His father was a professor of mathematics at a
local college and thus had considerable influence in shaping
Ramachandran’s interest in mathematics. After completing his
school years, Ramachandran graduated in 1942 as the top-
ranking student in the B.Sc. (Honors) Physics course of the
University of Madras. He received a Ph.D. from Cambridge
University in 1949. While at Cambridge, Ramachandran met
Linus Pauling and was deeply influenced by his publications on
models of the α-helix and β-sheet structures that directed his
attention to solving the structure of collagen. He passed away at
the age of 78, on April 7, 2001.
G.N. Ramachandran
(1922 – 2001)
2020-21
When you look around, you see both living and non-living things. You
must have wondered and asked yourself – ‘what is it that makes an
organism living, or what is it that an inanimate thing does not have which
a living thing has’ ? The answer to this is the presence of the basic unit of
life – the cell in all living organisms.
All organisms are composed of cells. Some are composed of a single
cell and are called unicellular organisms while others, like us, composed
of many cells, are called multicellular organisms.
8.1 WHAT IS A CELL?
Unicellular organisms are capable of (i) independent existence and
(ii) performing the essential functions of life. Anything less than a complete
structure of a cell does not ensure independent living. Hence, cell is the
fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a live cell. Robert
Brown later discovered the nucleus. The invention of the microscope and
its improvement leading to the electron microscope revealed all the
structural details of the cell.
8.2 CELL THEORY
In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number
of plants and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of
cells which form the tissues of the plant. At about the same time, Theodore
C
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8.1 What is a Cell?
8.2 Cell Theory
8.3 An Overview of
Cell
8.4 Prokaryotic Cells
8.5 Eukaryotic Cells
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Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied different types of animal cells
and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today known as the
‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded, based on his studies on plant
tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant
cells. On the basis of this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies
of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
Schleiden and Schwann together formulated the cell theory. This theory
however, did not explain as to how new cells were formed. Rudolf Virchow
(1855) first explained that cells divided and new cells are formed from
pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the hypothesis of
Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape. Cell theory
as understood today is:
(i) all living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) all cells arise from pre-existing cells.
8.3 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
You have earlier observed cells in an onion peel and/or human cheek
cells under the microscope. Let us recollect their structure. The onion cell
which is a typical plant cell, has a distinct cell wall as its outer boundary
and just within it is the cell membrane. The cells of the human cheek
have an outer membrane as the delimiting structure of the cell. Inside
each cell is a dense membrane bound structure called nucleus. This
nucleus contains the chromosomes which in turn contain the genetic
material, DNA. Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called
eukaryotic whereas cells that lack a membrane bound nucleus are
prokaryotic. In both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, a semi-fluid matrix
called cytoplasm occupies the volume of the cell. The cytoplasm is the
main arena of cellular activities in both the plant and animal cells. Various
chemical reactions occur in it to keep the cell in the ‘living state’.
Besides the nucleus, the eukaryotic cells have other membrane bound
distinct structures called organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
the golgi complex, lysosomes, mitochondria, microbodies and vacuoles.
The prokaryotic cells lack such membrane bound organelles.
Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in all cells –
both eukaryotic as well as prokaryotic. Within the cell, ribosomes are
found not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles –
chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria and on rough ER.
Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called
centrosome which helps in cell division.
Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities (Figure 8.1). For example,
Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while bacteria
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Red blood cells
(round and biconcave)
White blood cells
(Branched and long)
Columnar epithelial cells
(long and narrow)
(amoeboid)
Nerve cell
Mesophyll cells
(round and oval)
A tracheid
(elongated)
Figure 8.1 Diagram showing different shapes of the cells
could be 3 to 5 µm. The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich.
Among multicellular organisms, human red blood cells are about 7.0
µm in diameter. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells. Cells also vary
greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid,
thread like, or even irregular. The shape of the cell may vary with the
function they perform.
8.4 PROKARYOTIC CELLS
The prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae,
mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms). They are
generally smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells
(Figure 8.2). They may vary greatly in shape and size. The four basic
shapes of bacteria are bacillus (rod like), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma
shaped) and spirillum (spiral).
The organisation of the prokaryotic cell is fundamentally similar even
though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions. All
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prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the
cell membrane except in mycoplasma. The fluid
matrix filling the cell is the cytoplasm. There is
no well-defined nucleus. The genetic material is
basically naked, not enveloped by a nuclear
membrane. In addition to the genomic DNA (the
single chromosome/circular DNA), many
bacteria have small circular DNA outside the
genomic DNA. These smaller DNA are called
plasmids. The plasmid DNA confers certain
unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria.
One such character is resistance to antibiotics.
In higher classes you will learn that this plasmid
DNA is used to monitor bacterial transformation
with foreign DNA. Nuclear membrane is found
in eukaryotes. No organelles, like the ones in
eukaryotes, are found in prokaryotic cells except
for ribosomes. Prokaryotes have something
unique in the form of inclusions. A specialised
differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome is the characteristic
of prokaryotes. They are essentially infoldings of cell membrane.
8.4.1 Cell Envelope and its Modifications
Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells, have a chemically
complex cell envelope. The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound three
layered structure i.e., the outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and
then the plasma membrane. Although each layer of the envelope performs
distinct function, they act together as a single protective unit. Bacteria can
be classified into two groups on the basis of the differences in the cell envelopes
and the manner in which they respond to the staining procedure developed
by Gram viz., those that take up the gram stain are Gram positive and the
others that do not are called Gram negative bacteria.
Glycocalyx differs in composition and thickness among different
bacteria. It could be a loose sheath called the slime layer in some, while
in others it may be thick and tough, called the capsule. The cell wall
determines the shape of the cell and provides a strong structural support
to prevent the bacterium from bursting or collapsing.
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature and interacts
with the outside world. This membrane is similar structurally to that of
the eukaryotes.
A special membranous structure is the
mesosome which is formed
by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. These extensions are
in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell wall
Typical bacteria
(1-2 m)m
PPLO
(about 0.1 m)m
Viruses
(0.02-0.2 m)m
A typical eukaryotic cell
(10-20 m)m
Figure 8.2 Diagram showing comparison of
eukaryotic cell with other
organisms
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formation, DNA replication and distribution to daughter cells. They also
help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase the surface area of
the plasma membrane and enzymatic content. In some prokaryotes like
cyanobacteria, there are other membranous extensions into the cytoplasm
called chromatophores which contain pigments.
Bacterial cells may be motile or non-motile. If motile, they have thin
filamentous extensions from their cell wall called flagella. Bacteria show a
range in the number and arrangement of flagella. Bacterial flagellum is
composed of three parts – filament, hook and basal body. The filament
is the longest portion and extends from the cell surface to the outside.
Besides flagella, Pili and Fimbriae are also surface structures of the
bacteria but do not play a role in motility. The pili are elongated tubular
structures made of a special protein. The fimbriae are small bristle like
fibres sprouting out of the cell. In some bacteria, they are known to help
attach the bacteria to rocks in streams and also to the host tissues.
8.4.2 Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies
In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane of
the cell. They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size and are made of two
subunits - 50S and 30S units which when present together form 70S
prokaryotic ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. Several
ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called
polyribosomes or polysome. The ribosomes of a polysome translate the
mRNA into proteins.
Inclusion bodies: Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in
the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies. These are not bound by
any membrane system and lie free in the cytoplasm, e.g., phosphate
granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules. Gas vacuoles
are found in blue green and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
8.5 EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants, animals and fungi. In
eukaryotic cells there is an extensive compartmentalisation of cytoplasm
through the presence of membrane bound organelles. Eukaryotic cells
possess an organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope. In addition,
eukaryotic cells have a variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal
structures. Their genetic material is organised into chromosomes.
All eukaryotic cells are not identical. Plant and animal cells are different
as the former possess cell walls, plastids and a large central vacuole which
are absent in animal cells. On the other hand, animal cells have centrioles
which are absent in almost all plant cells (Figure 8.3).
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Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Lysosome
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Plasmodesmata
Microtubule
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Golgi
apparatus
Nuclear
envelope
Vacuole
Middle lamella
Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Mitochondrion
Ribosomes
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
Peroxisome
Figure 8.3 Diagram showing : (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell
Golgi
apparatus
Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
Nuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Microvilli
Plasma
membrane
Centriole
Peroxiome
Lysosome
Ribosomes
Mitochondrion
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Cytoplasm
(a)
(b)
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Cholesterol
Sugar
Peripheral
Protein
Phospholipid
bilayer
Let us now look at individual cell organelles to understand their
structure and functions.
8.5.1 Cell Membrane
The detailed structure of the membrane was studied only after the advent
of the electron microscope in the 1950s. Meanwhile, chemical studies on
the cell membrane, especially in human red blood cells (RBCs), enabled
the scientists to deduce the possible structure of plasma membrane.
These studies showed that the cell membrane is mainly composed of
lipids and proteins. The major lipids are phospholipids that are arranged
in a bilayer. Also, the lipids are arranged within the membrane with the
polar head towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards
the inner part.This ensures that the nonpolar tail of saturated
hydrocarbons is protected from the aqueous environment (Figure 8.4).
In addition to phospholipids membrane also contains cholesterol.
Later, biochemical investigation clearly revealed that the cell membranes
also possess protein and carbohydrate. The ratio of protein and lipid varies
considerably in different cell types. In human beings, the membrane of the
erythrocyte has approximately 52 per cent protein and 40 per cent lipids.
Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins can be
classified as integral and peripheral. Peripheral proteins lie on the surface
of membrane while the integral proteins are partially or totally buried in
the membrane.
Figure 8.4 Fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane
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An improved model of the structure of cell membrane was proposed
by Singer and Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid mosaic model
(Figure 8.4). According to this, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables
lateral movement of proteins within the overall bilayer. This ability to move
within the membrane is measured as its fluidity.
The fluid nature of the membrane is also important from the point of
view of functions like cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions,
secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc.
One of the most important functions of the plasma membrane is the
transport of the molecules across it. The membrane is selectively permeable
to some molecules present on either side of it. Many molecules can move
briefly across the membrane without any requirement of energy and this
is called the passive transport. Neutral solutes may move across the
membrane by the process of simple diffusion along the concentration
gradient, i.e., from higher concentration to the lower. Water may also move
across this membrane from higher to lower concentration. Movement of
water by diffusion is called osmosis. As the polar molecules cannot pass
through the nonpolar lipid bilayer, they require a carrier protein of the
membrane to facilitate their transport across the membrane. A few ions
or molecules are transported across the membrane against their
concentration gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher concentration. Such
a transport is an energy dependent process, in which ATP is utilised and
is called active transport, e.g., Na
+
/K
+
Pump.
8.5.2 Cell Wall
As you may recall, a non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms
an outer covering for the plasma membrane of fungi and plants. Cell wall
not only gives shape to the cell and protects the cell from mechanical
damage and infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell interaction and provides
barrier to undesirable macromolecules. Algae have cell wall, made of
cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate, while
in other plants it consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins.
The cell wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of growth,
which gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall is
formed on the inner (towards membrane) side of the cell.
The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium pectate which holds
or glues the different neighbouring cells together. The cell wall and middle
lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm
of neighbouring cells.
8.5.3 Endomembrane System
While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its
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Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Rough
Ribosome
endoplasmic
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Smooth
reticulum
structure and function, many of these are
considered together as an endomembrane system
because their functions are coordinated. The
endomembrane system include endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and
vacuoles. Since the functions of the mitochondria,
chloroplast and peroxisomes are not coordinated
with the above components, these are not
considered as part of the endomembrane system.
8.5.3.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Electron microscopic studies of eukaryotic cells
reveal the presence of a network or reticulum of
tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm
that is called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(Figure 8.5). Hence, ER divides the intracellular
space into two distinct compartments, i.e., luminal
(inside ER) and extra luminal (cytoplasm)
compartments.
The ER often shows ribosomes attached to
their outer surface. The endoplasmic reticulun
bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER). In the absence of
ribosomes they appear smooth and are called
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER is frequently observed in the cells actively
involved in protein synthesis and secretion. They
are extensive and continuous with the outer
membrane of the nucleus.
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is the major
site for synthesis of lipid. In animal cells lipid-like
steroidal hormones are synthesised in SER.
8.5.3.2 Golgi apparatus
Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely stained
reticular structures near the nucleus. These were
later named Golgi bodies after him. They consist
of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of
0.5µm to 1.0µm diameter (Figure 8.6). These are
stacked parallel to each other. Varied number of
cisternae are present in a Golgi complex. The Golgi
cisternae are concentrically arranged near the
nucleus with distinct convex cis or the forming
Figure 8.5 Endoplasmic reticulum
Cisternae
Figure 8.6 Golgi apparatus
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134 BIOLOGY
face and concave trans or the maturing face.
The cis and the trans faces of the organelle are entirely different, but
interconnected.
The golgi apparatus principally performs the function of packaging
materials, to be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted
outside the cell. Materials to be packaged in the form of vesicles from
the ER fuse with the cis face of the golgi apparatus and move towards
the maturing face. This explains, why the golgi apparatus remains in
close association with the endoplasmic reticulum. A number of proteins
synthesised by ribosomes on the endoplasmic reticulum are modified
in the cisternae of the golgi apparatus before they are released from its
trans face. Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of
glycoproteins and glycolipids.
8.5.3.3 Lysosomes
These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process
of packaging in the golgi apparatus. The isolated lysosomal vesicles
have been found to be very rich in almost all types of hydrolytic
enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) optimally
active at the acidic pH. These enzymes are capable of digesting
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
8.5.3.4 Vacuoles
The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm. It contains
water, sap, excretory product and other materials not useful for the cell. The
vacuole is bound by a single membrane called tonoplast. In plant cells the
vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume of the cell.
In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions
and other materials against concentration gradients into the vacuole, hence
their concentration is significantly higher in the vacuole than in the
cytoplasm.
In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important for osmoregulation
and excretion. In many cells, as in protists, food vacuoles are formed by
engulfing the food particles.
8.5.4 Mitochondria
Mitochondria (sing.: mitochondrion), unless specifically stained, are not
easily visible under the microscope. The number of mitochondria per cell
is variable depending on the physiological activity of the cells. In terms of
shape and size also, considerable degree of variability is observed. Typically
it is sausage-shaped or cylindrical having a diameter of 0.2-1.0µm (average
0.5µm) and length 1.0-4.1µm. Each mitochondrion is a double
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membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner
membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments,
i.e., the outer compartment and the inner compartment. The inner
compartment is filled with a dense homogeneous substance called the
matrix. The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of
the organelle. The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called
the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the matrix (Figure 8.7). The cristae
increase the surface area. The two membranes have their own specific
enzymes associated with the mitochondrial function. Mitochondria are
the sites of aerobic respiration. They produce cellular energy in the form
of ATP, hence they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell. The matrix also
possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes
(70S) and the components required for the synthesis of proteins. The
mitochondria divide by fission.
8.5.5 Plastids
Plastids are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides. These are easily
observed under the microscope as they are large. They bear some specific
pigments, thus imparting specific colours to the plants. Based on the
type of pigments plastids can be classified into chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which
are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis. In
the chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene,
xanthophylls and others are present. This gives the part of the plant a
yellow, orange or red colour. The leucoplasts are the colourless plastids
of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients:
Amyloplasts store
carbohydrates (starch), e.g., potato; elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas
Outer
membrane
Inner
membrane
Matrix
Crista
Figure 8.7 Structure of mitochondrion (Longitudinal section)
Inter-membrane
space
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the aleuroplasts store proteins.
Majority of the chloroplasts of the green
plants are found in the mesophyll cells of
the leaves. These are lens-shaped, oval,
spherical, discoid or even ribbon-like
organelles having variable length (5-10µm)
and width (2-4µm). Their number varies
from 1 per cell of the Chlamydomonas, a
green alga to 20-40 per cell in the mesophyll.
Like mitochondria, the chloroplasts are
also double membrane bound. Of the two,
the inner chloroplast membrane is relatively
less permeable. The space limited by the
inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. A number of organised
flattened membranous sacs called the thylakoids, are present in the stroma
(Figure 8.8). Thylakoids are arranged in stacks like the piles of coins called
grana (singular: granum) or the intergranal thylakoids. In addition, there are
flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids
of the different grana. The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called
a lumen. The stroma of the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the
synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins. It also contains small, double-
stranded circular DNA molecules and ribosomes. Chlorophyll pigments are
present in the thylakoids. The ribosomes of the chloroplasts are smaller (70S)
than the cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
8.5.6 Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed under the electron
microscope as dense particles by George Palade (1953). They are
composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins and
are not surrounded by any membrane.
The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the
prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S. Each ribosome has two
subunits, larger and smaller subunits (Fig 8.9). The two
subunits of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while that
of 70S ribosomes are 50S and 30S. Here ‘S’ (Svedberg’s
Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient; it is
indirectly a measure of density and size. Both 70S and
80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
Figure 8.8 Sectional view of chloroplast
Figure 8.9 Ribosome
8.5.7 Cytoskeleton
An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures consisting
of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments present in
the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the cytoskeleton. The
cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions such as mechanical
support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
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8.5.8 Cilia and Flagella
Cilia (sing.: cilium) and flagella (sing.: flagellum) are hair-like outgrowths
of the cell membrane. Cilia are small structures which work like oars,
causing the movement of either the cell or the surrounding fluid. Flagella
are comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement. The
prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally
different from that of the eukaryotic flagella.
The electron microscopic study of a cilium or the flagellum show that
they are covered with plasma membrane. Their core called the axoneme,
possesses a number of microtubules running parallel to the long axis.
The axoneme usually has nine doublets of radially arranged peripheral
microtubules, and a pair of centrally located microtubules. Such an
arrangement of axonemal microtubules is referred to as the 9+2 array
(Figure 8.10). The central tubules are connected by bridges and is also
enclosed by a central sheath, which is connected to one of the tubules of
each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke. Thus, there are nine radial
spokes. The peripheral doublets are also interconnected by linkers. Both
the cilium and flagellum emerge from centriole-like structure called the
basal bodies.
8.5.9 Centrosome and Centrioles
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures
called centrioles. They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar
materials. Both the centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each
other in which each has an organisation like the cartwheel. They are
Plasma
membrane
Peripheral
microtubules
(doublets)
Interdoublet
bridge
Central
microtuble
Radial
spoke
Central
sheath
Figure 8.10 Section of cilia/flagella showing different parts : (a) Electron micrograph
(b) Diagrammatic representation of internal structure
(a)
(b)
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made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral fibrils of tubulin protein. Each
of the peripheral fibril is a triplet.The adjacent triplets are also linked.
The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is also proteinaceous
and called the hub, which is connected with tubules of the peripheral
triplets by radial spokes made of protein. The centrioles form the basal
body of cilia or flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to spindle
apparatus during cell division in animal cells.
8.5.10 Nucleus
Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early
as 1831. Later the material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes was
given the name chromatin by Flemming.
The interphase nucleus (nucleus of a
cell when it is not dividing) has highly
extended and elaborate nucleoprotein
fibres called chromatin, nuclear matrix
and one or more spherical bodies called
nucleoli (sing.: nucleolus) (Figure 8.11).
Electron microscopy has revealed that the
nuclear envelope, which consists of two
parallel membranes with a space between
(10 to 50 nm) called the perinuclear
space, forms a barrier between the
materials present inside the nucleus and
that of the cytoplasm. The outer
membrane usually remains continuous
with the endoplasmic reticulum and also
bears ribosomes on it. At a number of
places the nuclear envelope is interrupted by minute pores, which are
formed by the fusion of its two membranes. These nuclear pores are the
passages through which movement of RNA and protein molecules takes
place in both directions between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Normally,
there is only one nucleus per cell, variations in the number of nuclei are
also frequently observed. Can you recollect names of organisms that
have more than one nucleus per cell? Some mature cells even lack
nucleus, e.g., erythrocytes of many mammals and sieve tube cells of
vascular plants. Would you consider these cells as ‘living’?
The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and
chromatin. The nucleoli are spherical structures present in the
nucleoplasm. The content of nucleolus is continuous with the rest of the
nucleoplasm as it is not a membrane bound structure. It is a site for
active ribosomal RNA synthesis. Larger and more numerous nucleoli are
present in cells actively carrying out protein synthesis.
Nucleoplasm
Nucleolus
Nuclear pore
Nuclear
membrane
Figure 8.11 Structure of nucleus
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Kinetochore
Figure 8.12 Chromosome with
kinetochore
Figure 8.13 Types of chromosomes based on the position of centromere
You may recall that the interphase nucleus has a loose
and indistinct network of nucleoprotein fibres called
chromatin. But during different stages of cell division, cells
show structured chromosomes in place of the nucleus.
Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called
histones, some non-histone proteins and also RNA. A
single human cell has approximately two metre long
thread of DNA distributed among its forty six (twenty three
pairs) chromosomes. You will study the details of DNA
packaging in the form of a chromosome in class XII.
Every chromosome (visible only in dividing cells)
essentially has a primary constriction or the centromere
on the sides of which disc shaped structures called
kinetochores are present (Figure 8.12). Centromere holds
two chromatids of a chromosome. Based on the position
of the centromere, the chromosomes can be classified into
four types (Figure 8.13). The metacentric chromosome
has middle centromere forming two equal arms of the
chromosome. The sub-metacentric chromosome has
centromere slightly away from the middle of the
chromosome resulting into one shorter arm and one
longer arm. In case of acrocentric chromosome the
centromere is situated close to its end forming one
extremely short and one very long arm, whereas the
telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.
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Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary
constrictions at a constant location. This gives the appearance of a small
fragment called the satellite.
8.5.11 Microbodies
Many membrane bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain
various enzymes, are present in both plant and animal cells.
SUMMARY
All organisms are made of cells or aggregates of cells. Cells vary in their shape, size
and activities/functions. Based on the presence or absence of a membrane bound
nucleus and other organelles, cells and hence organisms can be named as
eukaryotic or prokaryotic.
A typical eukaryotic cell consists of a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm.
Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. The plasma membrane is
selectively permeable and facilitates transport of several molecules. The
endomembrane system includes ER, golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles. All
the cell organelles perform different but specific functions. Centrosome and centriole
form the basal body of cilia and flagella that facilitate locomotion. In animal cells,
centrioles also form spindle apparatus during cell division. Nucleus contains
nucleoli and chromatin network. It not only controls the activities of organelles
but also plays a major role in heredity.
Endoplasmic reticulum contains tubules or cisternae. They are of two types:
rough and smooth. ER helps in the transport of substances, synthesis of
proteins, lipoproteins and glycogen. The golgi body is a membranous organelle
composed of flattened sacs. The secretions of cells are packed in them and
transported from the cell. Lysosomes are single membrane structures
containing enzymes for digestion of all types of macromolecules. Ribosomes
are involved in protein synthesis. These occur freely in the cytoplasm or are
associated with ER. Mitochondria help in oxidative phosphorylation and
generation of adenosine triphosphate. They are bound by double membrane;
the outer membrane is smooth and inner one folds into several cristae. Plastids
are pigment containing organelles found in plant cells only. In plant cells,
chloroplasts are responsible for trapping light energy essential for
photosynthesis. The grana, in the plastid, is the site of light reactions and the
stroma of dark reactions. The green coloured plastids are chloroplasts, which
contain chlorophyll, whereas the other coloured plastids are chromoplasts,
which may contain pigments like carotene and xanthophyll. The nucleus is
enclosed by nuclear envelope, a double membrane structure with nuclear pores.
The inner membrane encloses the nucleoplasm and the chromatin material.
Thus, cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
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EXERCISES
1. Which of the following is not correct?
(a) Robert Brown discovered the cell.
(b) Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory.
(c) Virchow explained that cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
(d) A unicellular organism carries out its life activities within a single cell.
2. New cells generate from
(a) bacterial fermentation (b) regeneration of old cells
(c) pre-existing cells (d) abiotic materials
3. Match the following
Column I Column II
(a) Cristae (i) Flat membranous sacs in stroma
(b) Cisternae (ii) Infoldings in mitochondria
(c) Thylakoids (iii) Disc-shaped sacs in Golgi apparatus
4. Which of the following is correct:
(a) Cells of all living organisms have a nucleus.
(b) Both animal and plant cells have a well defined cell wall.
(c) In prokaryotes, there are no membrane bound organelles.
(d) Cells are formed de novo from abiotic materials.
5. What is a mesosome in a prokaryotic cell? Mention the functions that it performs.
6. How do neutral solutes move across the plasma membrane? Can the polar
molecules also move across it in the same way? If not, then how are these
transported across the membrane?
7. Name two cell-organelles that are double membrane bound. What are the
characteristics of these two organelles? State their functions and draw labelled
diagrams of both.
8. What are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells?
9. Multicellular organisms have division of labour. Explain.
10. Cell is the basic unit of life. Discuss in brief.
11. What are nuclear pores? State their function.
12. Both lysosomes and vacuoles are endomembrane structures, yet they differ in
terms of their functions. Comment.
13. Describe the structure of the following with the help of labelled diagrams.
(i) Nucleus (ii) Centrosome
14. What is a centromere? How does the position of centromere form the basis of
classification of chromosomes. Support your answer with a diagram showing
the position of centromere on different types of chromosomes.
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