84 BIOLOGY

You can very easily see the structural similarities and variations in the

external morphology of the larger living organism, both plants and

animals. Similarly, if we were to study the internal structure, one also

finds several similarities as well as differences. This chapter introduces

you to the internal structure and functional organisation of higher plants.

Study of internal structure of plants is called anatomy. Plants have cells

as the basic unit, cells are organised into tissues and in turn the tissues

are organised into organs. Different organs in a plant show differences in

their internal structure. Within angiosperms, the monocots and dicots

are also seen to be anatomically different. Internal structures also show

adaptations to diverse environments.

6.1 THE TISSUES

A tissue is a group of cells having a common origin and usually performing

a common function. A plant is made up of different kinds of tissues. Tissues

are classified into two main groups, namely, meristematic and permanent

tissues based on whether the cells being formed are capable of dividing

or not.

6.1.1 Meristematic Tissues

Growth in plants is largely restricted to specialised regions of active cell division

called meristems (Gk. meristos: divided). Plants have different kinds of

meristems. The meristems which occur at the tips of roots and shoots and

produce primary tissues are called apical meristems (Figure 6.1).

NATOMY OF

LOWERING

LANTS

HAPTER

6.1 The Tissues

6.2 The Tissue

System

6.3 Anatomy of

Dicotyledonous

and

Monocotyledonous

Plants

6.4 Secondary

Growth

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Root apical meristem occupies the tip of a root while the shoot apical

meristem occupies the distant most region of the stem axis. During the

formation of leaves and elongation of stem, some cells ‘left behind’ from

shoot apical meristem, constitute the axillary bud. Such buds are present

in the axils of leaves and are capable of forming a branch or a flower. The

meristem which occurs between mature tissues is known as intercalary

meristem. They occur in grasses and regenerate parts removed by the

grazing herbivores. Both apical meristems and intercalary meristems are

primary meristems because they appear early in life of a plant and

contribute to the formation of the primary plant body.

The meristem that occurs in the mature regions of roots and shoots of

many plants, particularly those that produce woody axis and appear

later than primary meristem is called the secondary or lateral meristem.

They are cylindrical meristems. Fascicular vascular cambium,

interfascicular cambium and cork-cambium are examples of lateral

meristems. These are responsible for producing the secondary tissues.

Following divisions of cells in both primary and as well as secondary

meristems, the newly formed cells become structurally and functionally

specialised and lose the ability to divide. Such cells are termed permanent

or mature cells and constitute the permanent tissues. During the

formation of the primary plant body, specific regions of the apical meristem

produce dermal tissues, ground tissues and vascular tissues.

Central cylinder

Cortex

Protoderm

Initials of central

cylinder

and cortex

Initials of

root cap

Root cap

Root apical

meristem

Leaf primordium

Shoot apical

Meristematic zone

Axillary bud

Differentiating

vascular tissue

Figure 6.1 Apical meristem: (a) Root (b) Shoot

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6.1.2 Permanent Tissues

The cells of the permanent tissues do not generally

divide further. Permanent tissues having all cells

similar in structure and function are called simple

tissues. Permanent tissues having many different

types of cells are called complex tissues.

6.1.2.1 Simple Tissues

A simple tissue is made of only one type of cells.

The various simple tissues in plants are

parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma

(Figure 6.2). Parenchyma forms the major

component within organs. The cells of the

parenchyma are generally isodiametric. They

may be spherical, oval, round, polygonal or

elongated in shape. Their walls are thin and made

up of cellulose. They may either be closely packed

or have small intercellular spaces. The

parenchyma performs various functions like

photosynthesis, storage, secretion.

The collenchyma occurs in layers below the

epidermis in most of the dicotyledonous plants. It is

found either as a homogeneous layer or in patches.

It consists of cells which are much thickened at the

corners due to a deposition of cellulose,

hemicellulose and pectin. Collenchymatous cells

may be oval, spherical or polygonal and often

contain chloroplasts. These cells assimilate food

when they contain chloroplasts. Intercellular spaces

are absent. They provide mechanical support to the

growing parts of the plant such as young stem and

petiole of a leaf.

Sclerenchyma consists of long, narrow cells

with thick and lignified cell walls having a few or

numerous pits. They are usually dead and without

protoplasts. On the basis of variation in form,

structure, origin and development, sclerenchyma

may be either fibres or sclereids. The fibres are

thick-walled, elongated and pointed cells,

generally occuring in groups, in various parts of

the plant. The

sclereids are spherical, oval or

cylindrical, highly thickened dead cells with very

Intercelluar space

Figure 6.2 Simple tissues :

(a) Parenchyma

(b) Collenchyma

A fibre

A sclereid

(c)

Lumen

Thick

cell wall

Lumen

Pits

Thick

cell wall

(b)

Thickened corners

Protoplasm

Vacuole

Cell wall

(a)

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ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

narrow cavities (lumen). These are commonly found in the fruit

walls of nuts; pulp of fruits like guava, pear and sapota; seed

coats of legumes and leaves of tea. Sclerenchyma provides

mechanical support to organs.

6.1.2.2 Complex Tissues

The complex tissues are made of more than one type of cells

and these work together as a unit. Xylem and phloem constitute

the complex tissues in plants (Figure 6.3).

Xylem functions as a conducting tissue for water and

minerals from roots to the stem and leaves. It also provides

mechanical strength to the plant parts. It is composed of four

different kinds of elements, namely, tracheids, vessels, xylem

fibres and xylem parenchyma. Gymnosperms lack vessels in

their xylem. Tracheids are elongated or tube like cells with

thick and lignified walls and tapering ends. These are dead and

are without protoplasm. The inner layers of the cell walls have

thickenings which vary in form. In flowering plants, tracheids

and vessels are the main water transporting elements. Vessel is

a long cylindrical tube-like structure made up of many cells

called vessel members, each with lignified walls and a large

central cavity. The vessel cells are also devoid of protoplasm.

Vessel members are interconnected through perforations in their

common walls. The presence of vessels is a characteristic feature

of angiosperms. Xylem fibres have highly thickened walls and

obliterated central lumens. These may either be septate or

aseptate. Xylem parenchyma cells are living and thin-walled,

and their cell walls are made up of cellulose. They store food

materials in the form of starch or fat, and other substances like

tannins. The radial conduction of water takes place by the ray

parenchymatous cells.

Primary xylem is of two types – protoxylem and metaxylem.

The first formed primary xylem elements are called protoxylem

and the later formed primary xylem is called metaxylem. In

stems, the protoxylem lies towards the centre (pith) and the

metaxylem lies towards the periphery of the organ. This type

of primary xylem is called

endarch. In roots, the protoxylem

lies towards periphery and metaxylem lies towards the centre.

Such arrangement of primary xylem is called exarch.

Phloem transports food materials, usually from leaves to

other parts of the plant. Phloem in angiosperms is composed

of sieve tube elements, companion cells, phloem parenchyma

Phloem

parenchyma

Companion

cell

(b)

Sieve pore

Sieve tube

element

Figure 6.3 (a) Xylem

(b) Phloem

(a)

Tracheid

Vessels

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and phloem fibres. Gymnosperms have albuminous cells and sieve cells.

They lack sieve tubes and companion cells. Sieve tube elements are

also long, tube-like structures, arranged longitudinally and are

associated with the companion cells. Their end walls are perforated in a

sieve-like manner to form the sieve plates. A mature sieve element

possesses a peripheral cytoplasm and a large vacuole but lacks a nucleus.

The functions of sieve tubes are controlled by the nucleus of companion

cells. The companion cells are specialised parenchymatous cells, which

are closely associated with sieve tube elements. The sieve tube elements

and companion cells are connected by pit fields present between their

common longitudinal walls. The companion cells help in maintaining the

pressure gradient in the sieve tubes. Phloem parenchyma is made up

of elongated, tapering cylindrical cells which have dense cytoplasm and

nucleus. The cell wall is composed of cellulose and has pits through which

plasmodesmatal connections exist between the cells. The phloem

parenchyma stores food material and other substances like resins, latex

and mucilage. Phloem parenchyma is absent in most of the

monocotyledons. Phloem fibres (bast fibres) are made up of

sclerenchymatous cells. These are generally absent in the primary phloem

but are found in the secondary phloem. These are much elongated,

unbranched and have pointed, needle like apices. The cell wall of phloem

fibres is quite thick. At maturity, these fibres lose their protoplasm and

become dead. Phloem fibres of jute, flax and hemp are used commercially.

The first formed primary phloem consists of narrow sieve tubes and is

referred to as protophloem and the later formed phloem has bigger sieve

tubes and is referred to as metaphloem

6.2 THE TISSUE SYSTEM

We were discussing types of tissues based on the types of cells present.

Let us now consider how tissues vary depending on their location in the

plant body. Their structure and function would also be dependent on

location. On the basis of their structure and location, there are three types

of tissue systems. These are the epidermal tissue system, the ground or

fundamental tissue system and the vascular or conducting tissue system.

6.2.1 Epidermal Tissue System

The epidermal tissue system forms the outer-most covering of the whole

plant body and comprises epidermal cells, stomata and the epidermal

appendages – the trichomes and hairs. The epidermis is the outermost

layer of the primary plant body. It is made up of elongated, compactly

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The cells of epidermis bear a number of hairs. The root hairs are

unicellular elongations of the epidermal cells and help absorb water and

minerals from the soil. On the stem the epidermal hairs are called

trichomes. The trichomes in the shoot system are usually multicellular.

They may be branched or unbranched and soft or stiff. They may even

be secretory. The trichomes help in preventing water loss due to

transpiration.

6.2.2 The Ground Tissue System

All tissues except epidermis and vascular bundles constitute the ground

tissue. It consists of simple tissues such as parenchyma, collenchyma

and sclerenchyma. Parenchymatous cells are usually present in cortex,

pericycle, pith and medullary rays, in the primary stems and roots. In

leaves, the ground tissue consists of thin-walled chloroplast containing

cells and is called mesophyll.

arranged cells, which form a continuous layer. Epidermis is usually single-

layered. Epidermal cells are parenchymatous with a small amount of

cytoplasm lining the cell wall and a large vacuole. The outside of the

epidermis is often covered with a waxy thick layer called the cuticle which

prevents the loss of water. Cuticle is absent in roots. Stomata are structures

present in the epidermis of leaves. Stomata regulate the process of

transpiration and gaseous exchange. Each stoma is composed of two bean-

shaped cells known as guard cells which enclose stomatal pore. In grasses,

the guard cells are dumb-bell shaped. The outer walls of guard cells (away

from the stomatal pore) are thin and the inner walls (towards the stomatal

pore) are highly thickened. The guard cells possess chloroplasts and

regulate the opening and closing of stomata. Sometimes, a few epidermal

cells, in the vicinity of the guard cells become specialised in their shape and

size and are known as subsidiary cells. The stomatal aperture, guard

cells and the surrounding subsidiary cells are together called stomatal

apparatus (Figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 Diagrammatic representation: (a) stomata with bean-shaped guard cells

(b) stomata with dumb-bell shaped guard cell

Epidermal cells

Subsidiary cells

Guard cells

Stomatal

pore

Chloroplast

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6.2.3 The Vascular Tissue System

The vascular system consists of complex tissues,

the phloem and the xylem.The xylem and

phloem together constitute vascular bundles

(Figure 6.5). In dicotyledonous stems, cambium

is present between phloem and xylem. Such

vascular bundles because of the presence of

cambium possess the ability to form secondary

xylem and phloem tissues, and hence are called

open vascular bundles. In the monocotyledons,

the vascular bundles have no cambium present

in them. Hence, since they do not form secondary

tissues they are referred to as closed

. When

xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are

arranged in an alternate manner along the

different radii, the arrangement is called radial

such as in roots. In conjoint type of vascular

bundles, the xylem and phloem are jointly

situated along the same radius of vascular

bundles. Such vascular bundles are common

in stems and leaves. The conjoint vascular

bundles usually have the phloem located only

on the outer side of xylem.

6.3 ANATOMY OF DICOTYLEDONOUS AND

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS

For a better understanding of tissue

organisation of roots, stems and leaves, it is

convenient to study the transverse sections of

the mature zones of these organs.

6.3.1 Dicotyledonous Root

Look at Figure 6.6 (a), it shows the transverse

section of the sunflower root. The internal tissue

organisation is as follows:

The outermost layer is epiblema. Many of

the cells of epiblema protrude in the form of

unicellular root hairs. The cortex consists of

several layers of thin-walled parenchyma cells

Figure 6.5 Various types of vascular bundles :

(a) radial (b) conjoint closed

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with intercellular spaces. The innermost

layer of the cortex is called endodermis.

It comprises a single layer of barrel-shaped

cells without any intercellular spaces. The

tangential as well as radial walls of the

endodermal cells have a deposition of

water-impermeable, waxy material suberin

in the form of casparian strips

. Next to

endodermis lies a few layers of thick-walled

parenchyomatous cells referred to as

pericycle. Initiation of lateral roots and

vascular cambium during the secondary

growth takes place in these cells. The pith

is small or inconspicuous. The

parenchymatous cells which lie between

the xylem and the phloem are called

conjuctive tissue. There are usually two

to four xylem and phloem patches. Later,

a cambium ring develops between the

xylem and phloem. All tissues on the

innerside of the endodermis such as

pericycle, vascular bundles and pith

constitute the stele.

6.3.2 Monocotyledonous Root

The anatomy of the monocot root is similar

to the dicot root in many respects (Figure

6.6 b). It has epidermis, cortex, endodermis,

pericycle, vascular bundles and pith. As

compared to the dicot root which have fewer

xylem bundles, there are usually more than

six (polyarch) xylem bundles in the monocot

root. Pith is large and well developed.

Monocotyledonous roots do not undergo

any secondary growth.

6.3.3 Dicotyledonous Stem

The transverse section of a typical young

dicotyledonous stem shows that the epidermis

is the outermost protective layer of the stem

Root hair

Epidermis

Cortex

Endodermis

Protoxylem

Metaxylem

Pith

Phloem

(a)

Pericycle

Root hair

Cortex

Endodermis

Phloem

Protoxylem

Pith

Metaxylem

(b)

Epidermis

Pericycle

Figure 6.6 T.S. : (a) Dicot root (Primary)

(b) Monocot root

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(Figure 6.7 a). Covered with a thin layer of cuticle, it may bear trichomes and

a few stomata. The cells arranged in multiple layers between epidermis and

pericycle constitute the cortex. It consists of three sub-zones. The outer

hypodermis, consists of a few layers of collenchymatous cells just below the

epidermis, which provide mechanical strength to the young stem. Cortical

layers below hypodermis consist of rounded thin walled parenchymatous

cells with conspicuous intercellular spaces. The innermost layer of the cortex

is called the endodermis. The cells of the endodermis are rich in starch

grains and the layer is also referred to as the starch sheath. Pericycle is

Figure 6.7 T.S. of stem : (a) Dicot (b) Monocot

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present on the inner side of the endodermis and above the phloem in the

form of semi-lunar patches of sclerenchyma. In between the vascular bundles

there are a few layers of radially placed parenchymatous cells, which constitute

medullary rays. A large number of vascular bundles are arranged in a ring ;

the ‘ring’ arrangement of vascular bundles is a characteristic of dicot stem.

Each vascular bundle is conjoint, open, and with endarch protoxylem. A

large number of rounded, parenchymatous cells with large intercellular

spaces which occupy the central portion of the stem constitute the pith.

6.3.4 Monocotyledonous Stem

The monocot stem has a sclerenchymatous hypodermis, a large number

of scattered vascular bundles, each surrounded by a sclerenchymatous

bundle sheath, and a large, conspicuous parenchymatous ground tissue

(Figure 6.7b). Vascular bundles are conjoint and closed. Peripheral

vascular bundles are generally smaller than the centrally located ones.

The phloem par

enchyma is absent, and water-containing cavities are

present within the vascular bundles.

6.3.5 Dorsiventral (Dicotyledonous) Leaf

The vertical section of a dorsiventral leaf through the lamina shows three

main parts, namely, epidermis, mesophyll and vascular system. The

epidermis which covers both the upper surface (adaxial epidermis) and

lower surface (abaxial epidermis) of the leaf has a conspicuous cuticle.

The abaxial epidermis generally bears more stomata than the adaxial

epidermis. The latter may even lack stomata. The tissue between the upper

and the lower epidermis is called the mesophyll. Mesophyll, which

possesses chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis, is made up of

parenchyma. It has two types of cells – the palisade parenchyma and

the spongy parenchyma. The adaxially placed palisade parenchyma is

made up of elongated cells, which are arranged vertically and parallel to

each other. The oval or round and loosely arranged spongy parenchyma

is situated below the palisade cells and extends to the lower epidermis.

There are numerous large spaces and air cavities between these cells.

Vascular system includes vascular bundles, which can be seen in the

veins and the midrib. The size of the vascular bundles are dependent on

the size of the veins. The veins vary in thickness in the reticulate venation

of the dicot leaves. The vascular bundles are surrounded by a layer of

thick walled bundle sheath cells. Look at Figure 6.8 (a) and find the

position of xylem in the vascular bundle.

6.3.6 Isobilateral (Monocotyledonous) Leaf

The anatomy of isobilateral leaf is similar to that of the dorsiventral leaf in

many ways. It shows the following characteristic differences. In an

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isobilateral leaf, the stomata are present

on both the surfaces of the epidermis; and

the mesophyll is not differentiated into

palisade and spongy parenchyma (Figure

6.8 b).

In grasses, certain adaxial epidermal

cells along the veins modify themselves

into large, empty, colourless cells. These

are called bulliform cells. When the

bulliform cells in the leaves have absorbed

water and are turgid, the leaf surface is

exposed. When they are flaccid due to

water stress, they make the leaves curl

inwards to minimise water loss.

The parallel venation in monocot

leaves is reflected in the near similar sizes

of vascular bundles (except in main veins)

as seen in vertical sections of the leaves.

6.4 SECONDARY GROWTH

The growth of the roots and stems in

length with the help of apical meristem is

called the primary growth. Apart from

primary growth most dicotyledonous

plants exhibit an increase in girth. This

increase is called the secondary growth.

The tissues involved in secondary growth

are the two lateral meristems: vascular

cambium and cork cambium.

6.4.1 Vascular Cambium

The meristematic layer that is responsible

for cutting off vascular tissues – xylem and

pholem – is called vascular cambium. In

the young stem it is present in patches as

a single layer between the xylem and

phloem. Later it forms a complete ring.

6.4.1.1 Formation of cambial ring

In dicot stems, the cells of cambium present

between primary xylem and primary

phloem is the intrafascicular cambium.

Figure 6.8 T.S. of leaf : (a) Dicot (b) Monocot

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The cells of medullary rays, adjoining these intrafascicular cambium become

meristematic and form the interfascicular cambium. Thus, a continuous

ring of cambium is formed.

6.4.1.2 Activity of the cambial ring

The cambial ring becomes active and begins to cut off new cells, both

towards the inner and the outer sides. The cells cut off towards pith,

mature into secondary xylem and the cells cut off towards periphery

mature into secondary phloem

. The cambium is generally more active

on the inner side than on the outer. As a result, the amount of secondary

xylem produced is more than secondary phloem and soon forms a

compact mass. The primary and secondary phloems get gradually

crushed due to the continued formation and accumulation of secondary

xylem. The primary xylem however remains more or less intact, in or

around the centre. At some places, the cambium forms a narrow band of

parenchyma, which passes through the secondary xylem and the

secondary phloem in the radial directions. These are the secondary

medullary rays (Figure 6.9).

Figure 6.9 Secondary growth in a dicot stem (diagrammatic) – stages in transverse views

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6.4.1.3 Spring wood and autumn wood

The activity of cambium is under the control of many physiological and

environmental factors. In temperate regions, the climatic conditions are

not uniform through the year. In the spring season, cambium is very

active and produces a large number of xylary elements having vessels

with wider cavities. The wood formed during this season is called spring

wood or early wood. In winter, the cambium is less active and forms

fewer xylary elements that have narrow vessels, and this wood is called

autumn wood or late wood.

The spring wood is lighter in colour and has a lower density whereas

the autumn wood is darker and has a higher density. The two kinds of

woods that appear as alternate concentric rings, constitute an annual ring.

Annual rings seen in a cut stem give an estimate of the age of the tree.

6.4.1.4 Heartwood and sapwood

In old trees, the greater part of secondary xylem is dark brown due to

deposition of organic compounds like tannins, resins, oils, gums, aromatic

substances and essential oils in the central or innermost layers of the stem.

These substances make it hard, durable and resistant to the attacks of micro-

organisms and insects. This region comprises dead elements with highly

lignified walls and is called heartwood. The heartwood does not conduct

water but it gives mechanical support to the stem. The peripheral region of

the secondary xylem, is lighter in colour and is known as the sapwood. It is

involved in the conduction of water and minerals from root to leaf.

6.4.2 Cork Cambium

As the stem continues to increase in girth due to the activity of vascular

cambium, the outer cortical and epidermis layers get broken and need to

be replaced to provide new pr

otective cell layers. Hence, sooner or later,

another meristematic tissue called cork cambium or phellogen develops,

usually in the cortex region. Phellogen is a couple of layers thick. It is

made of narrow, thin-walled and nearly rectangular cells. Phellogen cuts

off cells on both sides. The outer cells differentiate into cork or phellem

while the inner cells differentiate into secondary cortex or phelloderm.

The cork is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall.

The cells of secondary cortex are parenchymatous. Phellogen, phellem,

and phelloderm are collectively known as periderm. Due to activity of

the cork cambium, pressure builds up on the remaining layers peripheral

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Figure 6.10 (a) Lenticel and (b) Bark

(b)

(a)

Epidermis

Complimentary

cells

Cork cambium

Secondary

cortex

(a)

to phellogen and ultimately these

layers die and slough off. Bark is a

non-technical term that refers to all

tissues exterior to the vascular

cambium, therefore including

secondary phloem. Bark refers to a

number of tissue types, viz.,

periderm and secondary phloem.

Bark that is formed early in the

season is called early or soft bark.

Towards the end of the season, late

or hard bark is formed. Name the

various kinds of cell layers which

constitute the bark.

At certain regions, the phellogen

cuts off closely arranged

parenchymatous cells on the outer

side instead of cork cells. These

parenchymatous cells soon rupture

the epidermis, forming a lens-

shaped openings called lenticels.

Lenticels permit the exchange of

gases between the outer atmosphere

and the internal tissue of the stem.

These occur in most woody trees

(Figure 6.10).

6.4.3 Secondary Growth in

Roots

In the dicot root, the vascular

cambium is completely secondary in

origin. It originates from the tissue

located just below the phloem

bundles, a portion of pericycle tissue,

above the protoxylem forming a

complete and continuous wavy ring,

which later becomes circular (Figure

6.11). Further events are similar to

those already described above for a

dicotyledon stem.

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Secondary growth also occurs in stems and roots of gymnosperms.

However, secondary growth does not occur in monocotyledons.

Epidermis

Cortex

Primary phloem

Cambial ring

Endodermis

Pericycle

Protoxylem

Epidermis

Vascular cambium

Secondary phloem

Primary xylem

Secondary xylem

Cortex

Epidermis/periderm

Cortex

Primary phloem

Annual ring

Secondary xylem

Secondary

phloem rays

Figure 6.11 Different stages of the secondary growth in a typical dicot root

Cortex

SUMMARY

Anatomically, a plant is made of different kinds of tissues. The plant tissues are

broadly classified into meristematic (apical, lateral and intercalary) and permanent

(simple and complex). Assimilation of food and its storage, transportation of water,

minerals and photosynthates, and mechanical support are the main functions of

tissues. There are three types of tissue systems – epidermal, ground and vascular.

The epidermal tissue systems are made of epidermal cells, stomata and the

epidermal appendages. The ground tissue system forms the main bulk of the

plant. It is divided into three zones – cortex, pericycle and pith. The vascular

tissue system is formed by the xylem and phloem. On the basis of presence of

cambium, location of xylem and phloem, the vascular bundles are of different

types. The vascular bundles form the conducting tissue and translocate water,

minerals and food material.

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Monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants show marked variation in their

internal structures. They differ in type, number and location of vascular bundles.

The secondary growth occurs in most of the dicotyledonous roots and stems and

it increases the girth (diameter) of the organs by the activity of the vascular cambium

and the cork cambium. The wood is actually a secondary xylem. There are different

types of wood on the basis of their composition and time of production.

EXERCISES

1. State the location and function of different types of meristems.

2. Cork cambium forms tissues that form the cork. Do you agree with this

statement? Explain.

3. Explain the process of secondary growth in the stems of woody angiosperms

with the help of schematic diagrams. What is its significance?

4. Draw illustrations to bring out the anatomical difference between

(a) Monocot root and Dicot root

(b) Monocot stem and Dicot stem

5. Cut a transverse section of young stem of a plant from your school garden and

observe it under the microscope. How would you ascertain whether it is a

monocot stem or a dicot stem? Give reasons.

6. The transverse section of a plant material shows the following anatomical

features - (a) the vascular bundles are conjoint, scattered and surrounded by a

sclerenchymatous bundle sheaths. (b) phloem parenchyma is absent. What

will you identify it as?

7. Why are xylem and phloem called complex tissues?

8. What is stomatal apparatus? Explain the structure of stomata with a labelled

diagram.

9. Name the three basic tissue systems in the flowering plants. Give the tissue

names under each system.

10. How is the study of plant anatomy useful to us?

11, What is periderm? How does periderm formation take place in the dicot stems?

12. Describe the internal structure of a dorsiventral leaf with the help of labelled

diagrams.

2020-21