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In the previous chapter, we looked at the broad classification of living

organisms under the system proposed by Whittaker (1969) wherein he

suggested the Five Kingdom classification viz. Monera, Protista, Fungi,

Animalia and Plantae. In this chapter, we will deal in detail with further

classification within Kingdom Plantae popularly known as the ‘plant

kingdom’.

We must stress here that our understanding of the plant kingdom

has changed over time. Fungi, and members of the Monera and Protista

having cell walls have now been excluded from Plantae though earlier

classifications placed them in the same kingdom. So, the cyanobacteria

that are also referred to as blue green algae are not ‘algae’ any more. In

this chapter, we will describe Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,

Gymnosperms and Angiosperms under Plantae .

Let us also look at classification within angiosperms to understand

some of the concerns that influenced the classification systems. The

earliest systems of classification used only gross superficial morphological

characters such as habit, colour, number and shape of leaves, etc. They

were based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium

structure (system given by Linnaeus). Such systems were artificial; they

separated the closely related species since they were based on a few

characteristics. Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to

vegetative and sexual characteristics; this is not acceptable since we know

that often the vegetative characters are more easily affected by

environment. As against this, natural classification systems developed,

which were based on natural affinities among the organisms and consider,

LANT

INGDOM

HAPTER

3.1 Algae

3.2 Bryophytes

3.3 Pteridophytes

3.4 Gymnosperms

3.5 Angiosperms

3.6 Plant Life Cycles

and Alternation

of Generations

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30 BIOLOGY

not only the external features, but also internal features, like ultra-

structure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry. Such a

classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and

Joseph Dalton Hooker.

At present phylogenetic classification systems based on

evolutionary relationships between the various organisms are acceptable.

This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common

ancestor. We now use information from many other sources too to help

resolve difficulties in classification. These become more important when

there is no supporting fossil evidence. Numerical Taxonomy which is

now easily carried out using computers is based on all observable

characteristics. Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and

the data are then processed. In this way each character is given equal

importance and at the same time hundreds of characters can be

considered. Cytotaxonomy that is based on cytological information like

chromosome number, structure, behaviour and chemotaxonomy that

uses the chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions, are also

used by taxonomists these days.

3.1 ALGAE

Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely

aquatic (both fresh water and marine) organisms. They occur in a

variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them

also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth

bear).

The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial

forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra

(Figure 3.1). A few of the marine forms such as kelps, form massive plant

bodies.

The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.

Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into

a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of

spores, the most common being the zoospores

. They are flagellated

(motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction

takes place through fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be

flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non-flagellated (non-motile)

but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is called

isogamous. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of

Eudorina is termed as anisogamous. Fusion between one large, non-

motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete is termed

oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus.

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Figure 3.1 Algae : (a) Green algae (i) Volvox (ii) Ulothrix

(b) Brown algae (i) Laminaria (ii) Fucus (iii) Dictyota

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32 BIOLOGY

Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total

carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through

photosynthesis. Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved

oxygen in their immediate environment. They are of paramount

importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form

the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals. Many species of Porphyra,

Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine algae

used as food. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts

of hydrocolloids (water holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and

carrageen (red algae) which are used commercially. Agar, one of the

commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to

grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies. Chlorella a

unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space

travellers. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae,

Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae.

3.1.1 Chlorophyceae

The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae. The

plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous. They are usually

grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b. The

pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts. The chloroplasts may be

discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in

different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies

called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein

besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets.

Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose

and an outer layer of pectose.

Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation or by

formation of different types of spores. Asexual reproduction is by

flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia. The sexual reproduction

shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it

may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Some commonly found

green algae are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara

(Figure 3.1a).

3.1.2 Phaeophyceae

The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in

marine habitats. They show great variation in size and form. They range

from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely

branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of

100 metres. They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls.

They vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending

upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in

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them. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the

form of laminarin or mannitol. The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall

usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin. The

protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole

and nucleus. The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a

holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ –

the frond. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Asexual

reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are

pear-shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella.

Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous.

Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium

(oogamous species). The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear

two laterally attached flagella. The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota,

Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus (Figure 3.1b).

3.1.3 Rhodophyceae

The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of

the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body. Majority

of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer

areas. They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water

and also at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates.

The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them

have complex body organisation. The food is stored as floridean starch

which is very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure.

The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. They

reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and sexually by non-motile

TABLE 3.1 Divisions of Algae and their Main Characteristics

Classes Common Major Stored Cell Wall Flagellar Habitat

Name Pigments Food Number and

Position of

Insertions

Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water,

algae a, b apical brackish water,

salt water

Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal, Fresh water

algae a, c, laminarin and algin lateral (rare) brackish

fucoxanthin water, salt

water

Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose, Absent Fresh water

algae a, d, starch pectin and (some),

phycoerythrin poly brackish

sulphate water, salt

esters water (most)

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34 BIOLOGY

gametes. Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex

post fertilisation developments. The common members are: Polysiphonia,

Porphyra (Figure 3.1c), Gracilaria and Gelidium.

3.2 BRYOPHYTES

Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found

commonly growing in moist shaded areas in the hills (Figure 3.2).

Archegoniophore

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Antheridiophore

Capsule

Antheridial

branch

Branches

Archegonial

branch

Seta

Sporophyte

Gametophyte

Leaves

Main axis

Rhizoids

Gemma cup

Rhizoids

Gemma cup

Rhizoids

Figure 3.2 Bryophytes: A liverwort – Marchantia (a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus

Mosses – (c) Funaria, gametophyte and sporophyte (d) Sphagnum

gametophyte

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Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because

these plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual

reproduction. They usually occur in damp, humid and shaded localities.

They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil.

The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae.

It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum

by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or

leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures. The

main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence

is called a gametophyte. The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular.

The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate

antherozoids. The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped

and produces a single egg. The antherozoids are released into water where

they come in contact with archegonium. An antherozoid fuses with the

egg to produce the zygote. Zygotes do not undergo reduction division

immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte.

The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic

gametophyte and derives nourishment from it. Some cells of the

sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid

spores. These spores germinate to produce gametophyte.

Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some

mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.

Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as

fuel, and as packing material for trans-shipment of living material because

of their capacity to hold water. Mosses along with lichens are the first

organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological importance.

They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of

higher plants. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the

impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. The bryophytes are divided

into liverworts and mosses.

3.2.1 Liverworts

The liverworts grow usually in moist, shady habitats such as banks of

streams, marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods.

The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia. The thallus is

dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate. The leafy members

have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-like structures.

Asexual reproduction in liverworts takes place by fragmentation of

thalli, or by the formation of specialised structures called gemmae

(sing. gemma). Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which

develop in small receptacles called gemma cups located on the thalli.

The gemmae become detached from the parent body and germinate to

form new individuals. During sexual reproduction, male and female sex

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36 BIOLOGY

organs are produced either on the same or on different thalli. The

sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. After meiosis,

spores are produced within the capsule. These spores germinate to form

free-living gametophytes.

3.2.2 Mosses

The predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss is the gametophyte which

consists of two stages. The first stage is the protonema stage, which

develops directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched and

frequently filamentous stage. The second stage is the leafy stage, which

develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They consist of

upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. They are attached

to the soil through multicellular and branched rhizoids. This stage bears

the sex organs.

Vegetative reproduction in mosses is by fragmentation and budding

in the secondary protonema. In sexual reproduction, the sex organs

antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex of the leafy shoots.

After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of a

foot, seta and capsule. The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than

that in liverworts. The capsule contains spores. Spores are formed after

meiosis. The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.

Common examples of mosses are Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum

(Figure 3.2).

3.3 PTERIDOPHYTES

The Pteridophytes include horsetails and ferns. Pteridophytes are used

for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders. They are also frequently grown

as ornamentals. Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to

possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem. You shall study more about

these tissues in Chapter 6. The pteridophytes are found in cool, damp,

shady places though some may flourish well in sandy-soil conditions.

You may recall that in bryophytes the dominant phase in the life

cycle is the gametophytic plant body. However, in pteridophytes, the

main plant body is a sporophyte which is differentiated into true root,

stem and leaves (Figure 3.3). These organs possess well-differentiated

vascular tissues. The leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as

in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns. The sporophytes bear

sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like appendages called

sporophylls. In some cases sporophylls may form distinct compact

structures called strobili or cones (Selaginella, Equisetum). The

sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. The spores

germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular,

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Figure 3.3 Pteridophytes : (a) Selaginella (b) Equisetum (c) Fern (d) Salvinia

Strobilus

Node

Internode

Branch

Rhizome

(b)

(c)

(d)

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38 BIOLOGY

free-living, mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called

prothallus. These gametophytes require cool, damp, shady places to

grow. Because of this specific restricted requirement and the need for

water for fertilisation, the spread of living pteridophytes is limited and

restricted to narrow geographical regions. The gametophytes bear male

and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia, respectively.

Water is required for transfer of antherozoids – the male gametes released

from the antheridia, to the mouth of archegonium. Fusion of male gamete

with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of zygote.

Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte

which is the dominant phase of the pteridophytes. In majority of the

pteridophytes all the spores are of similar kinds; such plants are called

homosporous. Genera like Selaginella and Salvinia which produce

two kinds of spores, macro (large) and micro (small) spores, are known

as heterosporous. The megaspores and microspores germinate and give

rise to female and male gametophytes, respectively. The female

gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophytes

for variable periods. The development of the zygotes into young embryos

take place within the female gametophytes. This event is a precursor to

the seed habit considered an important step in evolution.

The pteridophytes are further classified into four classes: Psilopsida

(Psilotum); Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium), Sphenopsida (Equisetum)

and Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum).

3.4 GYMNOSPERMS

The gymnosperms (gymnos : naked, sperma : seeds) are plants in which

the ovules are not enclosed by any ovary wall and remain exposed, both

before and after fertilisation. The seeds that develop post-fertilisation, are

not covered, i.e., are naked. Gymnosperms include medium-sized trees

or tall trees and shrubs (Figure 3.4). One of the gymnosperms, the giant

redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species. The roots are

generally tap roots. Roots in some genera have fungal association in the

form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised

roots called coralloid roots are associated with N

- fixing cyanobacteria.

The stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus). The leaves

may be simple or compound. In Cycas the pinnate leaves persist for a few

years. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted to withstand extremes

of temperature, humidity and wind. In conifers, the needle-like leaves

reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also

help to reduce water loss.

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The gymnosperms are heterosporous; they produce

haploid microspores and megaspores. The two kinds of

spores are produced within sporangia that are borne

on sporophylls which are arranged spirally along an axis

to form lax or compact strobili or cones. The strobili

bearing microsporophylls and microsporangia are

called microsporangiate or male strobili. The

microspores develop into a male gametophytic

generation which is highly reduced and is confined to

only a limited number of cells. This reduced

gametophyte is called a pollen grain. The development

of pollen grains take place within the microsporangia.

The cones bearing megasporophylls with ovules or

megasporangia are called macrosporangiate or female

strobili. The male or female cones or strobili may be

borne on the same tree (Pinus). However, in cycas male

cones and megasporophylls are borne on different trees.

The megaspore mother cell is differentiated from one of

the cells of the nucellus. The nucellus is protected by

envelopes and the composite structure is called an

ovule. The ovules are borne on megasporophylls which

may be clustered to form the female cones. The

megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four

megaspores. One of the megaspores enclosed within the

megasporangium develops into a multicellular female

gametophyte that bears two or more archegonia or

female sex organs. The multicellular female gametophyte

is also retained within megasporangium.

Unlike bryophytes and pteridophytes, in

gymnosperms the male and the female gametophytes

do not have an independent free-living existence. They

remain within the sporangia retained on the

sporophytes. The pollen grain is released from the

microsporangium. They are carried in air currents and

come in contact with the opening of the ovules borne

on megasporophylls. The pollen tube carrying the

male gametes grows towards archegonia in the ovules

and discharge their contents near the mouth of the

archegonia. Following fertilisation, zygote develops

into an embryo and the ovules into seeds. These seeds

are not covered.

(c)

Figure 3.4 Gymnosperms: (a) Cycas

(b) Pinus (c) Ginkgo

Dwarf Shoot

Long Shoot

Seeds

(b)

(a)

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3.5 ANGIOSPERMS

Unlike the gymnosperms where the ovules are naked, in the angiosperms

or flowering plants, the pollen grains and ovules are developed in

specialised structures called flowers. In angiosperms, the seeds are

enclosed in fruits. The angiosperms are an exceptionally large group of

plants occurring in wide range of habitats. They range in size from the

smallest Wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus (over 100 metres). They provide

us with food, fodder, fuel, medicines and several other commercially

important products. They are divided into two classes : the dicotyledons

and the monocotyledons (Figure 3.5). The dicotyledons are

characterised by seeds having two cotyledons, reticulate venations in

leaves, and tetramerous or pentamerous flowers, i.e., having four or five

members in each floral whorls. The monocotyledons on the other hand

are characterised by single cotyledonous seeds, parallel venation in

leaves, and trimerous flowers having three members in each floral whorls.

The male sex organ in a flower is the stamen. Each stamen consists of a

slender filament with an anther at the tip. Within the anthers, the pollen

mother cell divide by meiosis to produce microspores which matures

into pollen grains. The female sex organ in a flower is the pistil. Pistil

consists of a swollen ovary at its base, a long slender style and stigma.

Inside the ovary, ovules are present. Generally each ovule has a

megaspore mother cell that undergoes meiosis to form four haploid

megaspores. Three of them degenerate and one divide to form the embryo

sac. Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one egg cell

and two synergids, three antipodal cells and two polar nuclei. The polar

(b)

(a)

Figure 3.5 Angiosperms : (a) A dicotyledon (b) A monocotyledon

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PLANT KINGDOM

Figure 3.6 Life cycle of an angiosperm

nuclei eventually fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus. Pollen

grain, after dispersal from the anthers, are carried by wind or various other

agencies to the stigma of a pistil. This is termed as pollination. The pollen

grains germinate on the stigma and the resulting pollen tubes grow through

the tissues of stigma and style and reach the ovule. The pollen tubes enter

the embryo-sac where two male gametes are discharged. One of the male

gametes fuses with the egg cell (syngamy) to form a zygote. The other male

gamete fuses with the diploid secondary nucleus to produce the triploid

primary endosperm nucleus (PEN). Because of the occurrence of two

fusions i.e., syngamy and triple fusion, this event is termed as double

fertilisation, an event unique to angiosperms. The zygote develops into

an embryo (with one or two cotyledons) and the PEN develops into

endosperm which provides nourishment to the developing embryo. The

synergids and antipodals degenerate after fertilisation. During these events

the ovules develop into seeds and the ovaries develop into fruit. The life

cycle of an angiosperm is shown in Figure 3.6.

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3.6 PLANT LIFE CYCLES AND ALTERNATION OF

GENERATIONS

In plants, both haploid and diploid cells can divide by

mitosis. This ability leads to the formation of different

plant bodies - haploid and diploid. The haploid plant

body produces gametes by mitosis. This plant body

represents a gametophyte. Following fertilisation the

zygote also divides by mitosis to produce a diploid

sporophytic plant body. Haploid spores are produced

by this plant body by meiosis. These in turn, divide by

mitosis to form a haploid plant body once again. Thus,

during the life cycle of any sexually reproducing plant,

there is an alternation of generations between gamete

producing haploid gametophyte and spore producing

diploid sporophyte.

However, different plant groups, as well as individuals

representing them, differ in the following patterns:

1. Sporophytic generation is represented only by the

one-celled zygote. There are no free-living

sporophytes. Meiosis in the zygote results in the

formation of haploid spores. The haploid spores

divide mitotically and form the gametophyte. The

dominant, photosynthetic phase in such plants is

the free-living gametophyte. This kind of life cycle

is termed as haplontic. Many algae such as Volvox,

Spirogyra and some species of Chlamydomonas

represent this pattern (Figure 3.7 a).

2. On the other extreme, is the type wherein the diploid

sporophyte is the dominant, photosynthetic,

independent phase of the plant. The gametophytic

phase is represented by the single to few-celled

haploid gametophyte. This kind of life cycle is

termed as diplontic. An alga, Fucus sp., represents

this pattern (Fig. 3.7b). In addition, all seed bearing

plants i.e., gymnosperms and angiosperms, follow

this pattern with some variations, wherein, the

gametophytic phase is few to multi-celled.

3. Bryophytes and pteridophytes, interestingly, exhibit

an intermediate condition (Haplo-diplontic); both

phases are multicellular. However, they differ in their

dominant phases.

Syngamy

Zygote

(2n)

Spores

(n)

Haplontic

Gametogenesis

Meiosis

Gametophyte

(n)

(a)

Haplo-diplontic

Spores

(n)

Meiosis

Gametophyte

(n)

Syngamy

Zygote

(2n)

Gametogenesis

Sporophyte

(2n)

(c)

Figure 3.7 Life cycle patterns : (a) Haplontic

(b) Diplontic (c) Haplo-diplontic

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SUMMARY

Plant kingdom includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and

angiosperms. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing simple, thalloid, autotrophic and

largely aquatic organisms. Depending on the type of pigment possesed and the

type of stored food, algae are classfied into three classes, namely Chlorophyceae,

Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae. Algae usually reproduce vegetatively by

fragmentation, asexually by formation of different types of spores and sexually by

formation of gametes which may show isogamy, anisogamy or oogamy.

Bryophytes are plants which can live in soil but are dependent on water for

sexual reproduction. Their plant body is more differentiated than that of algae. It

is thallus-like and prostrate or erect and attached to the substratum by rhizoids.

They possess root-like, leaf-like and stem-like structures. The bryophytes are

divided into liverworts and mosses. The plant body of liverworts is thalloid and

dorsiventral whereas mosses have upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged

leaves. The main plant body of a bryophyte is gamete-producing and is called a

gametophyte. It bears the male sex organs called antheridia and female sex organs

called archegonia. The male and female gametes produced fuse to form zygote

which produces a multicellular body called a sporophyte. It produces haploid

spores. The spores germinate to form gametophytes.

In pteridophytes the main plant is a sporophyte which is differentiated into

true root, stem and leaves. These organs possess well-differentiated vascular

tissues. The sporophytes bear sporangia which produce spores. The spores

germinate to form gametophytes which require cool, damp places to grow. The

gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia,

respectively. Water is required for transfer of male gametes to archegonium where

zygote is formed after fertilisation. The zygote produces a sporophyte.

A dominant, independent, photosynthetic, thalloid or erect phase is

represented by a haploid gametophyte and it alternates with the short-

lived multicelluler sporophyte totally or partially dependent on the

gametophyte for its anchorage and nutrition. All bryophytes represent

this pattern.

The diploid sporophyte is represented by a dominant, independent,

photosynthetic, vascular plant body. It alternates with multicellular,

saprophytic/autotrophic, independent but short-lived haploid

gametophyte. Such a pattern is known as haplo-diplontic life cycle. All

pteridophytes exhibit this pattern (Figure 3.7 c).

Interestingly, while most algal genera are haplontic, some of them

such as Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, kelps are haplo-diplontic. Fucus, an

alga is diplontic.

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The gymnosperms are the plants in which ovules are not enclosed by any

ovary wall. After fertilisation the seeds remain exposed and therefore these plants

are called naked-seeded plants. The gymnosperms produce microspores and

megaspores which are produced in microsporangia and megasporangia borne on

the sporophylls. The sporophylls – microsporophylls and megasporophylls – are

arranged spirally on axis to form male and female cones, respectively. The pollen

grain germinates and pollen tube releases the male gamete into the ovule, where it

fuses with the egg cell in archegonia. Following fertilisation, the zygote develops

into embryo and the ovules into seeds.

In angiosperms, the male sex organs (stamen) and female sex organs (pistil)

are borne in a flower. Each stamen consists of a filament and an anther. The anther

produces pollen grains (male gametophyte) after meiosis. The pistil consists of an

ovary enclosing one to many ovules. Within the ovule is the female gametophyte

or embryo sac which contains the egg cell. The pollen tube enters the embryo-sac

where two male gametes are discharged. One male gamete fuses with egg cell

(syngamy) and other fuses with diploid secondary nucleus (triple fusion). This

phenomenon of two fusions is called double fertilisation and is unique to

angiosperms. The angiosperms are divided into two classes – the dicotyledons

and the monocotyledons.

During the life cycle of any sexually reproducing plant, there is alternation of

generations between gamete producing haploid gametophyte and spore producing

diploid sporophyte. However, different plant groups as well as individuals may

show different patterns of life cycles – haplontic, diplontic or intermediate.

EXERCISES

1. What is the basis of classification of algae?

2. When and where does reduction division take place in the life cycle of a liverwort,

a moss, a fern, a gymnosperm and an angiosperm?

3. Name three groups of plants that bear archegonia. Briefly describe the life cycle

of any one of them.

4. Mention the ploidy of the following: protonemal cell of a moss; primary endosperm

nucleus in dicot, leaf cell of a moss; prothallus cell of a ferm; gemma cell in

Marchantia; meristem cell of monocot, ovum of a liverwort, and zygote of a fern.

5. Write a note on economic importance of algae and gymnosperms.

6. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they classified

separately?

7. What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two examples.

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8. Explain briefly the following terms with suitable examples:-

(i) protonema

(ii) antheridium

(iii) archegonium

(iv) diplontic

(v) sporophyll

(vi) isogamy

9. Differentiate between the following:-

(i) red algae and brown algae

(ii) liverworts and moss

(iii) homosporous and heterosporous pteridophyte

(iv) syngamy and triple fusion

10. How would you distinguish monocots from dicots?

11. Match the following (column I with column II)

Column I Column II

(a) Chlamydomonas (i) Moss

(b) Cycas (ii) Pteridophyte

(d) Sphagnum (iv) Gymnosperm

12. Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms.

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